Pelargopsis+capensis

__**Stork-billed kingfisher, //Pelargopsis capensis// (Linnaeus,1766) **__ Meet Singapore's largest kingfisher! media type="youtube" key="9M6ZCAXQEnY" width="560" height="315" align="center"

Video [1] credit: Hans Lin **Did you know? This bird is named as such because of its __long and stout bill__, which resembles that of a [|stork]!** toc


 * [[image:1200px-Mycteria_leucocephala_-_Pak_Thale.jpg width="599" height="401" align="center"]] ||
 * [[image:taxo4254/stork-billed kingfisher 33-2.jpg width="600" height="402" align="center"]] ||
 * = Painted stork (top). Photo credit: Wikimedia Commons Stork-billed kingfisher (bottom). Photo credits: Dillen Ng (Permission Granted) ||
 * = **Figure 1** ||

=__** 1. Biology **__=

__**1.1. Feeding behavior **__
The vast bill of this kingfisher makes a formidable weapon in dealing with its preys. Its diet is primarily made up of marine and freshwater organisms (e.g. frogs, fish, crabs and shrimps). Although a kingfisher, this species is not a fish specialist. When primary food resources become scarce, it hunts for small mammals (mainly rodents) and young birds – sometimes marauded out of tree holes. This thus highlights its range of skills to hunt in different types of terrain.

 Being a sit-and-wait predator, it perches quietly while hunting and is often inconspicuous despite its size. When it spots its prey, it plunges down from its perch, and its heavy bodyweight enables it to swoop down fast on a fish swimming near the water surface ( [|read documentation] ) . Like other kingfishers, it has the ability to hover above the water body while searching for its prey. Once successful, it would carry its prey back and immobilize it by striking it against the perch a few times before swallowing it whole. The tapping noise caused by the prey being beaten and bruised can be heard from some distance.

 Check out an interesting observation  of a stork-billed kingfisher rejecting its prey.

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Feeding behavior of Stork-billed kingfisher. Video [2] credit: 13seaeagle Fun fact: an average family of 6 stork-billed kingfishers can eat up to 100 fish a day!

__1.2. Nesting and breeding__
The stork-billed kingfisher usually lives in a family with an average of 6 members. Like many other kingfishers, they are highly territorial and have been known to fiercely chase away large predators up to the size of White-bellied Sea Eagle and Adjutant Stork. The species is also monogamous, and both sexes usually work together to excavate the nest cavity in a river bank, decaying tree, termite nest. A breeding pair has been recorded to build their nest out of a small crack in a brick wall by working 5 to 6 hours a day for several weeks. Sometimes, a natural tree hollow would also be used. The incubating chamber would typically be located at the end of the tunnel. Each clutch usually contains 2 to 5 eggs, which are glossy, translucent white and near-spherical in shape. Both parents would incubate the eggs during the day while only the female incubates the eggs during the night. The breeding season varies depending on its residing location, but it ranges from January to September.

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Mating behavior of Stork-billed kingfishers. Video [3] credit: Simplenaturewatch

In Singapore, an overall increasing trend in its population has been observed. Although breeding has been reported, nest were not found until [|2016] <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">, and it was subsequently reported at the same location (Pulau Ubin) <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #428bca; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">a year later.


 * = [[image:Stork-billed-Kingfisher-chicks-in-nest-1.jpg]] ||
 * = [[image:Stork-billed-Kingfisher-chicks-in-nest-3.jpg]] ||
 * = Stork-billed kingfisher chicks in a nest (Taken in Thailand).[| Photo credit]: Alex Vargas [Permission pending] ||
 * = **Figure 2** ||

__**<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">1.3. Habitat **__
<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">It is widely but sparsely distributed in tropical south Asia ranging from India and Sri Lanka to Indonesia. In order to fish, they usually live by the edge of water bodies. Being a moderately forest dependent species, they are usually vulnerable to development, deforestation and water pollution. They are also known to inhabit artificial aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, for instance plantations and drain canals. In Singapore, they can typically be found at waterbodies in or near forests, parks, gardens and mangroves. media type="youtube" key="uSLS6SUCX_U" width="560" height="315" align="center"

Two Stork-billed kingfishers in a territorial strife. Video [4] credit: Simplenaturewatch <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> Fun fact: they occur in altitudes from 0 to 1200 meters (not restricted to lowland)

=2. Description=

__2.1. Diagnostics__

 * ===General===
 * < [[image:2.png width="584" height="437" align="center"]] ||
 * = Photo credit: Kwong Wai Chong [Permission pending] ||
 * = **Figure 3** ||

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">(1) Forehead, crown, lores, cheeks and ear-coverts: dark olive-brown (2) Collar around hindneck and sides of neck: dark yellow-buff (3) Mantle: dull greenish-blue (4) Bill: scarlet, darker towards the tip (5) Eye s: red eye ring


 * [[image:taxo4254/1.png]] ||
 * = [|Photo credit]: Amar Singh HSS [Permission granted] ||
 * = **Figure 4** ||

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> (6) Primaries and secondaries: dark-brown edged with blue (flight photo) (7) Lower-back and rump: brilliant pale azure-blue (conspicuous during flight) [8] (8) Chin and throat: pale yellow or buff (9) Rest of underparts including underwing-coverts: rich orange buff (10) Legs and feet: orange-red <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> Distinct morphological differences exist between these three species, which can be easily told apart even by an untrained eye.
 * ===Between kingfishers commonly found in Singapore===

(Right) Common kingfisher. Photo credit: Lim Swee Kun (Permission pending) ||
 * [[image:3-Collared-Kingfisher-Parent-A.jpg width="567" height="381"]] || [[image:12875344743_05095cf78f_b.jpg width="562" height="382"]] ||
 * = (Left) Collared kingfisher. Photo credit: Kwong Wai Chong (Permission pending)
 * = **Figure 5** ||
 * ===**<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Within genus **===
 * = **Common name** ||= Great-billed kingfisher ||= Stork-billed kingfisher ||= Brown-winged kingfisher ||
 * = **Species name** ||= //P. melanorhyncha// ||= //P. capensis// ||= //P. amauropterus// ||
 * = **Photo comparison** ||= [[image:greatbillled.jpg align="center"]]

Photo credit: Eddy Swan [Permission pending] ||=

Photo credit: Francis Yap (Permission pending) ||=

Photo credit: Wikimedia Commons || Myanmar to the Malay Peninsula || <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> The Stork-billed Kingfisher juvenile is characterised by its scaly breast, slightly more saturated feather colors, duller bill and less prominent red eye ring.
 * = **Head** ||= Creamy white ||= Dark olive brown ||= Orange yellow ||
 * = **Bill** ||= Black, sometimes with a small dark red spot at the base ||= Scarlet, darker towards the tip ||= Coral-red bill with dark tip ||
 * = **Plumage** ||= Dull greenish brown mantle, underpart creamy-white ||= Dull blue to greenish-blue mantle, with orange yellow underparts ||= Dark chocolate brown mantle, orange yellow underparts ||
 * = **Range** ||= **Endemic** to Sulawesi region of Indonesia ||= Sparsely distributed from India to Southeast Asia ||= North eastern coast of India through Bangladesh and
 * = **Figure 6** ||
 * = Note: the Great-billed kingfisher and Brown-winged kingfisher **cannot** be found in Singapore. ||
 * ===**<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Juvenile **===

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> Females are slightly larger, have larger beaks and their mantle is duller, usually more brownish or greenish (Image not available).
 * = [[image:juve.jpg align="left"]] ||
 * = <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Photo credit: Stijn De Win [Permission pending] ||
 * = **Figure 7** ||
 * ===**<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Between sexes **===

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #3b3b3b; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Most merely differ in plumage detail, but //<span style="color: #3b3b3b; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">P. C. gigantea //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #3b3b3b; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> of the Sulu Islands is most distinct - has a white head, neck and underparts.
 * ===**<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Between subspecies **===


 * [[image:subsp.jpg]] ||
 * = Photo credit: Djop Tabaranza [Permission pending] ||
 * = **Figure 8** ||

__** 2.2. Vocalisation **__
<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #3b3b3b; font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> It would usually first attract attention with its harsh cries. The call of this noisy kingfisher is made up of a low and far reaching "peer-peer-por" (territorial song) <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">( <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #428bca; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">[|**XC369408**] <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">) <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #3b3b3b; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">repeated every 5 seconds or so as well as a loud, raucous shrieking ‘laugh’ ke-ke-ke-ke-ke with explosive accent on the intial ke <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">( <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #428bca; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">[|**XC357465**] <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">).

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=__** 3. Distribution and range **__=

__**<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">3.1. Local **__
<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">An uncommon resident in Singapore, this bird is often seen on the northern and western coasts, and is fairly common on the surrounding islets <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> Sighted at: Central Catchment Forest, Kranji Marsh, Singapore Botanic Gardens, Japanese Garden, Jurong Eco Garden, Hindhede Quarry, Pulau Ubin, Sungei Buloh any patch of suitable habitat. * Disclaimer: this list is not exhaustive* <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #1a1a1a; font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> media type="custom" key="29477359"

__**<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">3.2. Global **__
The continental range of stork-billed kingfisher is mainly restricted to South Asia, <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">from India and Sri Lanka to Indonesia.
 * [[image:Distribution.jpg]] ||
 * Global distribution and range of stork-billed kingfisher. Photo credit: eBird (Fair use) . ||
 * = **Figure 9** ||

=__** 4. Conservation status **__=


 * [[image:iucn.JPG]] ||
 * = <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Photo credit: <span style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">IUCN Red List of Threatened Species <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> (Free use) ||
 * = **Figure 10** ||

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> Although it is evaluated as Least Concern mainly due to its extremely large range, global population is decreasing and some populations are threatened by ongoing habitat destruction. In Singapore, it is a Uncommon Resident

=__** 5. Taxonomy and systematics **__=

__**<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">5.1 Taxonavigation **__
<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Kingdom: **<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Animalia ** <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Phylum: **<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Chordata ** <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Class: **<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Aves ** <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Order: **<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Coraciiformes ** <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Family: **<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Alcedinidae ** <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Genus: **<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">//[|Pelargopsis]// Gloger, 1841 ** <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Species: **<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">//Pelargopsis capensis// (Linnaeus, 1766) **

__**5.2 Nomenclature**__
<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> //Pelargopsis capensis// was first described by Linnaeus in 1766 under //Alcedo capensis//. <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Linnaeus based his description on Mathurin Jacques Brisson’s specimen <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #212121; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">, of which he believed had come from the Cape of Good Hope region of South Africa. However, species does not occur in Africa, and it was suggested that the specimen had been obtained from Java, Indonesia. It is currently known to have come from near [|Chandannagar] in West Bengal, India. <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #212121; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">The genus //Pelargopsis// was later introduced by the German zoologist [|Constantin Gloger] <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Protonym: //Alcedo capensis// Linnaeus 1766
 * ===**Original description**===
 * [[image:des1.JPG align="left"]] ||
 * = <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; display: block; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: center;">Original description by Linnaeus. Retrieved from: Harvard University Botany Libraries (Fair Use). ||
 * = **Figure 11** ||
 * ===**Protonym, synonym and common names**===

Synonym(s): //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">- H ////<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">alcyon capensis //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">(Fry, 1980) *The sources (author name and year) of the following synonyms are unavailable* // - [|Ramphalcyon capensis] // // - [|Alcedo gurial] // // - Pelargopsis gurial //

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> Common name(s): Brown-headed stork-billed kingfisher, Common stork-billed kingfisher


 * = [[image:pelargopsis gurial.jpg width="580" height="421"]] ||
 * = <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #3d3c3c; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Somewhat confused nomenclature: nominate race previously believed to refer to populations of Java, and under that arrangement Indian mainland birds were placed in race //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #3d3c3c; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; vertical-align: baseline;">gurial //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #3d3c3c; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">, which was later synonymized with <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #3d3c3c; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; vertical-align: baseline;">//capensis// <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #3d3c3c; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; vertical-align: baseline;">. [|Photo credit]: Smithsonian Institution NMNH (Fair Use) ||
 * = **Figure 12** ||

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> The genus name //Pelargopsis// is derived from classical Greek, a combindation of //pelargos// meaning '[|stork]', and //opsis// meaning 'appearance'. The specific epithet, //capensis//, denotes the [|Cape of Good Hope]
 * ===**Etymology**===

__**<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">5.3 Phylogenetics **__
<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> RAG-1 is known to be a bird-specific gene as it has provided good resolution across varying taxonomic levels in birds. Nuclear DNA (RAG-1) evolves slowly and generally provides more phylogenetic signal than mitochondrial markers (ND2) at deeper nodes in a phylogeny. Mitochondrial marker, on the other hand, evolves more quickly and is useful for resolving more closely-related taxa.
 * ===**RAG-1 (Recombination activating gene) and ND2 (NADH dehydrogenase-2 gene)**===

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">The monophyly of //<span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Pelargopsis capensis //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> with the three species belonging to genus //<span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Halcyon //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> is strongly supported by the combined analysis of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences (highlighted yellow below). <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">//Pelargopsis// was lumped together with //Halcyon// by Fry (1980), while phylogeny supports splitting the two genera. Thus, merging or retaining those genera is subjective. However,the decision to split off //<span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Pelargopsis //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> from //<span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Halcyon //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> could be maintained to account for their difference in morphology. *Disclaimer: Ranks, except species, are arbitrary and uninformative. Taxon names, however, are necessary as communication tools and can exist without ranks.
 * ===**<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">//Pelargopsis// split or merged with //[|Halcyon] ?// **===

|| <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> On the other hand, //Lacedo pulchella//'s sister relationship with //Pelargopsis capensis// and the three species belonging to genus //Halcyon// is weakly supported with low posterior probability and insignificant bootstrap value (highlighted in blue above), leaving the relationship between the three genera unresolved (below).
 * [[image:phylotree4.JPG width="506" height="565" align="center"]]
 * < The phylogeny of kingfishers (Alcedinidae) reconstructed by Moyle (2006) by comparing mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences representing 38 ingroup species supported the splitting of Pelargopsis from Halcyon ||
 * = **Figure 13** ||
 * ===**Unresolved relationship of Lacedo, Pelargopsis and Halcyon**===


 * [[image:phylotree5.JPG align="center"]] ||
 * = Bayesian consensus phylogeny of Alcedinidae genera from nuclear (RAG-1) and mtDNA (ND2) sequence data ||
 * = **Figure 14** ||

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">The available information of holotypes are //P. capensis// subspecies.
 * ===**Type specimen**===

Type specimen for Singapore's subspecies //P.c. malaccensis,// formerly known as //Ramhalcyon capensis hydrophilia//, can be found in National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution. It was collected from Singapore.

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14.6667px;">Sequences for mitochondrial gene cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) of the stork-billed kingfisher have been barcoded and are available <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">here
 * ===**DNA barcoding**===

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> Polytypic; currently with 15 sub-species recognised. media type="custom" key="29477365"
 * ===**Subspecies distribution**===

=__ 6. References __=