Camposcia+retusa


 * Velcro crab** **//Camposcia retusa// (Latreille, 1829)**

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Ever seen a piece of seaweed or sponge moving on its own? You might want to look closer; there could probably be a Velcro crab under the moving seaweed! This crab wears a full load of decoration everywhere it goes – sometimes colourful, sometimes dull. It is also known as the spider decorator crab or Camposcia decorator crab.  Read on to find out more about this interesting crab!  = 1. Physical description = Usually, the Velcro crab is so heavily decorated that all you can see are its eyes and pincers. What does it look like under all that decoration? If all its decorations are removed (Figure 2), the Velcro crab is actually pretty small - it's convex and pear-shaped carapace usually only grows to a width of about 3 cm 1]2]3]4]. The species has long and curved eyestalks, which cannot be retracted 5].

The Velcro crab possesses a pair of chelae (singular: chela), which are pincer-like claws, on its first pair of pereoipods or legs. These legs are called chelipeds and are shorter than the other eight legs [2]. The 2nd to 5th pereiopods of the Velcro crab are long and slender [6], usually growing up to 10 cm. They are used for walking, hence they are also known as ambulatory legs.

The carapace and 2nd to 5th pereiopods of the Velcro crab are covered in fine, hooked, stiff hairs called setae 4]7] (Figure 3). Have you examined the rough and scratchy side of a Velcro strip before? These hooked setae look just like the rough side of the Velcro we use 10] – Figure 3 shows the photographs of both hooked setae and man-made Velcro under the microscope. Not only do they look like man-made Velcro, they also function like Velcro – they help the decorations to adhere firmly to the crab’s body, just like how the Velcro hooks latch onto fabric. This is probably how the species became known as the Velcro crab.

=2. Decorating Behaviour= The Velcro crab is part of a group of crabs known as the decorator crabs. As the name suggests, these crabs are famous for their interesting habit of “decorating” themselves with all kinds of materials. This decorating behaviour is not learnt – it is inbuilt in decorator crabs [7]. They cut off pieces of debris or shells before sticking them on their bodies, and sometimes they even use living organisms such as soft corals, sponges, seaweed, the leaves of land plants and algae 8]9]! Interestingly, the sponges and algae attached to decorator crabs can still continue to grow.

2.1 Why decorate?
These decorations provide decorator crabs with both visual and chemical defence against their many predators like octopuses, large fishes, lobsters and sea otters [7]. The decorations make the decorator crabs less visible to their predators by helping them to camouflage with their surroundings and some of them are so heavily decorated that they do not look like crabs at all [10]11] ! Also, some decorator crabs choose to attach distasteful or harmful materials such as certain sponges, seaweed, sea urchins and stinging corals, to deter predators from eating them [<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">8]10]11]12]. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">For some species of decorator crabs, such as the Velcro crab, these decorations also function as a food store [<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">13]. These crabs attach excess food to their bodies and consume them at a later time.





<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">2.2 How do decorator crabs decorate?
<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">Initially, it was thought that decorator crabs secreted a glue to stick decorations on their shells [<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">7]8], but studies found that the materials attach to the hooked setae covering the crabs’ shells just like how Velcro works. The crabs use their chelae to pick up pieces of decorating material, and cut or tear them into pieces of suitable length and size [<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">7]8]11]. The decorator crabs then use their mouthparts to soften the edges of the material before rubbing it against their shells to attach the material to the dense hooked setae covering their bodies [<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">8]10]13]. <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;"> <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">Having trouble visualising the decorating process? Watch the two videos below to see how decorator crabs attach all kinds of materials onto their bodies! <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: center;"> media type="youtube" key="MYyFTK0C4Nw" width="496" height="282" align="center" Video 1: How decorator crabs decorate themselves 35].

media type="youtube" key="k5bsyHpTZAA" width="490" height="298" align="center" Video 2: A decorator crab decorating itself with a Zoanthid coral polyp 36]. <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: center;"> <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">These crabs usually decorate their carapace first before decorating other parts of their body [ <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">13 <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">], and in the case of the Velcro crab (Figures 6 & 7), every part of its shell is heavily decorated except its chelipeds [ <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">11 <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">]. When decorator crabs moult, they take off the decorations from their old shell and attach it to their new shell - watch a freshly moulted decorator crab recycle its decorations in the video below!



media type="youtube" key="FusSJD_FxdI" width="560" height="315" align="center" <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">Video 3: A decorator crab reusing its old decorations from its moult 39].

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">2.3 The cost-benefit trade-off of decorating
<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">Although decorating is beneficial to decorator crabs by helping them stay hidden from predators, the act of decorating requires energy to and the crab has to expend more energy to carry the extra weight of decorations around [<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">7]10]14]. Studies have found that the larger the species of decorator crab, the less the species decorates [<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">7]8]10]. Also, in some species, as the crab grows from juvenile to adult, the extent of decoration decreases, and some species even stop decorating completely when they are adults 10]27]. This could be because the larger crabs are less vulnerable to predation as they have a thicker carapace and can defend themselves with their bigger claws [<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">15]27], so the energetic costs of decorating outweigh the benefits of defence against predators. Over time, the larger species evolved to decorate less or completely not decorate at all [<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">14]. On the other hand, camouflage is a more effective and important anti-predator defence for smaller decorator crabs, such as the Velcro crab. In fact, it is one of the smallest species and heaviest decorators amongst the decorator crabs, and it decorates throughout its life [<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">7]. <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;"> <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">One example of a large species of decorator crab that decorates less as it grows is the Sheep crab (//Loxorhynchus grandis//) (Figure 8). It's carapace can grow up to 16 cm in width. When the species reaches adulthood, it decorates its carapace minimally or stops decorating completely 14]28]. The amount of decoration on the Sheep crab in Figure 8 differs so much from that on the Velcro crab in Figure 9! <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;"> <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;"> =<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 18px;">3. Distribution and Habitat = <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">The Velcro crab can be found throughout the Indo-west pacific region 9]16], from East Africa to the Philippines to the French Polynesian islands (Figure 10). <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;"> <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">In Singapore, the Velcro crab can be found on the offshore islands, such as Pulau Ubin and the Southern islands, as well as on the coastal areas on the mainland, such as Changi beach, Tuas, East Coast Park and Tanah Merah (see map below) 48].

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 0px; overflow: hidden;">media type="custom" key="28863226" align="left"

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">The Velcro crab inhabits rocky shores, coral reefs and seagrass beds, and can be found in the intertidal and subtidal zones 3]9]. The species has also been found in deeper waters of up to 200 m 3]! The intertidal zone is the area between the high and low tide marks, which means the area is submerged in water at high tide and above water at low tide. The subtidal zone is below the low tide mark, so it is always submerged in water (Figure 11). =4. Biology=

4.1 Diet
<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">The Velcro crab is a scavenger that feeds on dead organisms and decaying matter 17]. 

4.2 Reproduction
<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">There is a lack of research into the reproductive cycle of the Velcro crab. Reproduction in the Velcro crab is most likely similar to that of the other species of crabs in the same family (Inachidae). Male crabs have to first court their female counterparts 18]. For decorator crabs, decorations do not play a role in attracting mates, instead, some species rely on chemical signals 7]. However, these decorations can be advantageous in male-male competitions over a mate by making the crab look bigger than its competitor 7]. After mating, female crabs carry the eggs in their abdomen until they hatch into free-swimming zoea 18]. =5. Conservation and Threats=

5.1 Conservation status
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">The Velcro crab has not been accessed for the IUCN red list and does not have an official conservation status. However, the species is listed as ‘Vulnerable’ under the Singapore red data book 9].

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">Under the Singapore Red Data book classification, a species that is classified as 'Vulnerable' has a local population of between 250 to 1000 mature individuals, and there might be evidence of decline in populations numbers, small habitat range or habitat fragmentation 9].

5.2 Threats
<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">Although an official conservation status has not been assigned to the species, it does not mean that the species is free from threats to its survival. One potential threat to the Velcro crab is the aquarium trade 9]16]19]. It is a popular species in the trade because of its hardiness to survive in aquariums compared to other decorator crabs 20] and because of its interesting decorating behaviour 19]. As such, the Singapore data book states that the collection of the species from Singapore should be limited or disallowed completely 9]. Although the Velcro crab is an interesting animal, if you spot it when visiting a coastal area, please do not bring it home as a pet. Also, if you are planning to purchase one for your aquarium, do check the origin of the crab - please do not purchase it if it was caught from the wild. <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;"> <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">On top of the threat from the aquarium trade, these crabs also face an additional threat in Singapore – habitat loss. This species inhabits rocky shores, which are being lost to development 9]. To date, there are only rocky shores found in Labrador Beach, Pulau Ubin and the Southern Islands 21]. The preservation of these rocky shore habitats is thus important in the conservation of the Velcro crab locally 22]. =6. Taxonomy=

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">6.1 Taxonomic Hierarchy
<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">23]
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">Kingdom || <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">Animalia ||
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">Phylum || <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">Arthropoda ||
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">Subphylum || <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">Crustacea ||
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">Class || <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">Malacostraca ||
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">Order || <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">Decapoda ||
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">Infraorder || <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">Brachyura ||
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">Superfamily || <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">Majoidea ||
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">Family || <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">Inachidae ||
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">Genus || <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">//Camposcia// ||
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">Species || <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">//Camposcia retusa// ||

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">6.2 Original description
<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">While it is clear that Latreille is the original descriptor of the species, there are conflicts in the literature regarding the author citation for the species – some refer to the species as //Camposcia retusa// Latreille 1829, while others refer to it as //Camposcia retusa// (Latreille, 1829). <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">In a journal written by Latreille in 1829, entitled “Les crustacés, les arachnides et les insectes, distribués en familles naturelles, ouvrage formant les tomes 4 et 5 de M. le Baron Cuvier sur le Règne animal (deuxième édition)”, the species //Maia retusa// and the genus //Camposcia// were mentioned on page 60, together with some physical descriptions (Figures 12 & 13). <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">Some authors regard the journal by Latreille (1829) as the original description of the species, but the species //Maia retusa// had already been mentioned by Latreille in another journal in 1817, so it is unclear if the journal by Latreille (1829) is the original description of the species. However, the description of Camposcia in Latreille (1829) did not refer to the specific species, hence it cannot be taken as the original description of the species as well. There are also no documents recording the switch in genus, so the different genus names could well be different combinations of scientific names given to the species.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">The confusion could also be due to the different spellings of the scientific name in different records. In Latreille (1829), the species was referred to as //Maia retuja// – Ng, Guinot, & Davie (2008) later confirmed that “retuja” was a spelling error 24]. Some records by Latreille also referred to the species in French – using “Camposcie” and “retuse” – instead of Latin names 24].

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">Although there is no general consensus about the original name of the species, it has been established that the accepted scientific name for the species is //Camposcia retusa//, and //Maia retusa// is a synonym.





<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">6.3 Synonyms

 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">//Maia retusa//

6.4 Type information
<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">The species was first described with a single female specimen, on the basis of monotypy, but there conflicts in the literature as to whether the type species is //Maia retusa// 24]25] or //Camposcia retusa// 26]. It is not known where the type specimen was collected from 25]26]. Currently, the status of the type and its location is unknown 26].

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">6.5 Phylogeny
<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">The genus //Camposcia// is a monotypic genus. Currently, the there are no studies on the phylogenetic relationship of //Camposcia retusa// to the species and genus levels. There have only been phylogenetic studies to the family level. <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;"> <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">Decorator crabs belong to the monophyletic superfamily Majoidea. The relationships between the species of Majoidea crabs have been constructed based on adult eyestalk, antennal morphology and larval morphology 29]. Phylogenetic trees constructed using these morphological data show that the family Inachidae is monophyletic. <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;"> <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">Hultgren and Stachowicz (2008) were the first to study these relationships using molecular data from one nuclear locus (28S) and two mitochondrial loci (16S and CO1) 29]. The data was used to construct phylogenetic trees using Bayesian inference and Maximum Likelihood. Under the Bayesian method, molecular data from all three loci were combined to construct the phylogenetic tree. The constructed tree supports the previous studies that the family Inachidae, which the Velcro crab is a member of, is a monophyletic clade (Bayesian posterior probability support = 100) (Figure 14). Analyses using the maximum likelihood method analysed data from each loci separately (single loci dataset). For trees constructed using the 16S and 28S loci dataset, the bootstrap values for the support of the Inachidae clade are rather high (99 and 81 respectively). However, for the tree constructed by CO1 data, the bootstrap value for the Inachidae clade was less than 50 (table 1). The study also used Bayesian inference to construct trees with single loci datasets, and the Bayesian posterior probability support values were much higher (table 1). <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;"> <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">As Bayesian posterior probability support values can often be inflated relative to bootstrap values from maximum likelihood, the results from the study do not provide strong support for the monophyly of the family Inachidae. Another tree could be constructed using maximum likelihood and maximum parsimony with the combined dataset to see if the findings support the results from the Bayesian inference method. Moreover, this study only analysed molecular data from two species of crabs from the Inachidae family, so the results might not be conclusive. <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;"> <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;"> <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;"> <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">6.6 DNA Barcoding
<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">The entire genome of the Velcro crab has yet to be sequenced, but a region of the CO1 gene has been sequenced and recorded in the Barcode of Life Data Systems. The record can be found here. =<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 18px;">7. Glossary = **<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">Carapace **<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">: the hard upper shell of a crustacean, tortoise or arachnid <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">{Back to physical description] Back to reproduction]
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">Chela **<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;"> (singular): a pincer-like claw, especially of a crab or other crustacean
 * Cheliped**: one of the pair of legs that bears the chelae
 * Pereiopod**: each of the eight walking limbs of a crustacean such as a crab or lobster, growing from the thorax
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">Zoea **<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">: the larval form of certain crustaceans, such as crabs

=<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: left;">8. References =
 * 1) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">Knight, C. (1839). //The Penny Cyclopædia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge// (Vol. 14). London: Charles Knight and Co.
 * 2) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">Barnard, K. H. (1950). Descriptive catalogue of South African decapod crustacea. //Annals of the South African Museum, 38//, 1-837.
 * 3) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">Poupin, J., & Juncker, M. (2010). //A guide to the decapod crustaceans of the South Pacific.// Noumea, New Caledonia: Secretariat of the Pacific Community.
 * 4) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">Tan, L. W., & Ng, P. K. (n.d.). //Velcro crab//. Retrieved November 3, 2016, from A Guide to Seashore Life: http://mangrove.nus.edu.sg/pub/seashore/text/188.htm
 * 5) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">Griffin, D. J., & Tranter, H. A. (1986). Majidae. In //The Decapoda Brachyura of the Siboga Expedition// (p. 22). Leidon: BRILL.
 * 6) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">Griffin, D. J. (1966). A review of the Australian majid spider crabs (Crustacea, Brachyura). //Australian Zoology, 13//(3), 259-298.
 * 7) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">Castro, P., Davie, P., Guinot, D.G., Schram, F., & Klein, C.v. (2015). The Crustacea: Brachyura. //Treatise on Zoology - Anatomy,Taxonomy, Biology, 9//.
 * 8) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">Wicksten, M. K. (1980). Decorator crabs. //Scientific American, 242//, 146-154.
 * 9) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">Davison, G. W., Ng, P. K., & Ho, H. C. (2008). //The Singapore Red Data Book// (2nd ed.). Singapore: Nature Society (Singapore).
 * 10) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">Hultgren, K., & Stachowicz, J. J. (2011). Camouflage in decorator crabs: integrating ecological, behavioural and evolutionary approaches. //Animal camouflage//, 214-229.
 * 11) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">Tan, R. (2012, December). //Velcro Crab//. Retrieved November 2, 2016, from Wild Fact Sheets: http://www.wildsingapore.com/wildfacts/crustacea/crab/majoidea/retusa.htm
 * 12) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">Stachowicz, J. J., & Hay, M. E. (1999). Reducing predation through chemically mediated camouflage: indirect effects of plant defenses on herbivores. //Ecology, 80//(2), 495-509.
 * 13) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">Wicksten, M. K. (1993). A review and a model of decorating behaviour in spider crabs (Decapoda, Brachyura, Majidae). //Crustaceana,// //64//(3), 314-325.
 * 14) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">Berke, S. K., & Woodin, S. A. (2008). Energetic costs, ontogenetic shifts and sexual dimorphism in spider crab decoration. //Functional Ecology, 22//(6), 1125-1133.
 * 15) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">Ruxton, G. D., & Stevens, M. (2015). The evolutionary ecology of decorating behaviour. //Biology letters, 11//(6).
 * 16) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">Calado, R., Lin, J., Rhyne, A. L., Araújo, R., & Narciso, L. (2003). Marine ornamental decapods—popular, pricey, and poorly studied. //Journal of crustacean biology, 23//(4), 963-973.
 * 17) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">Ng, P. K., Corlett, R., & Tan, H. T. (2011). //Singapore biodiversity: an encyclopedia of the natural environment and sustainable development.// (D. Millet, Ed.)
 * 18) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">Le Bris, S., Bodilis, P., & Pean, M. (2016, April 7). //Camposcia retusa (Latreille, 1829)//. Retrieved November 5, 2016, from Data of Observations for Recognition and Identification fauna and flora Subaquatiques: http://doris.ffessm.fr/Especes/Camposcia-retusa-Crabe-decorateur-1251
 * 19) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">Kazmi, Q. B., & Kazmi, M. A. (2011). Ornamental crustaceans of Pakistan — ricey but poorly studied. //31st Pakistan congress of zoology.//
 * 20) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">Tygesen, K. T. (n.d.). //Decorator crab (Camposcia retusa)//. Retrieved November 8, 2016, from https://reefapp.net/en/lex/details/camposcia-retusa
 * 21) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">Lee Kong Chian Natural History Museum. (n.d.). //Rocky Shore//. Retrieved November 2, 2016, from http://lkcnhm.nus.edu.sg/dna/habitats/details/4
 * 22) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">National Parks Board. (n.d.). //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">Camposcia retusa //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">. Retrieved November 2, 2016, from NParks Flora & Fauna Web: https://florafaunaweb.nparks.gov.sg/special-pages/animal-detail.aspx?id=128
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 * 27) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">Hultgren, K. M., & Stachowicz, J. J. (2009). Evolution of decoration in majoid crabs: a comparative phylogenetic analysis of the role of body size and alternative defensive strategies. //The American Naturalist, 173//(5), 566-578.
 * 28) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">Wicksten, M. K. (1979). Decorating behavior in Loxorhynchus crispatus Stimpson and Loxorhynchus grandis Stimpson (Brachyura, Majidae). //Crustaceana//, 37-46.
 * 29) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">Hultgren, K. M., & Stachowicz, J. J. (2008). Molecular phylogeny of the brachyuran crab superfamily Majoidea indicates close congruence with trees based on larval morphology. //Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 48//(3), 986-996.
 * 30) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">“Figure 1: Velcro crab” by Michael Pollack. Permission granted. URL: []
 * 31) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">“Figure 2: Undecorated Velcro crab”. Adapted from Martin Lagerway. [CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 ([]]. Modifications: added labels. URL: []
 * 32) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">“Figure 3: Hooked setae and man-made Velcro”. Adapted from Hultgren & Stachowicz in [10]. Permission granted. Modifications: added annotations.
 * 33) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">“Figure 4: Can you spot the Velcro crab?” by Ow Yong Wei Long, own photo. Obtained through personal communication.
 * 34) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">“Figure 5: A Velcro crab decorates itself to look like the rock it is on” by Patrick Randall. [CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 ([])] URL: []
 * 35) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">“Video 1: How decorator crabs decorate themselves”. Source: BBC Earth, obtained and accredited under fair use. URL: []
 * 36) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">“Video 2: A decorator crab decorating itself with a Zoanthid coral polyp”. Source: stlreefer85, obtained and accredited under fair use. URL: []
 * 37) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">“Figure 6 (left): The chelipeds of the Velcro crabs are left undecorated”. Adapted from Ria Tan. Permission granted. Modifications: added arrows. URL: []
 * 38) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">“Figure 7 (right): The chelipeds of the Velcro crabs are left undecorated”. Adapted from Ria Tan. Permission granted. Modifications: added arrow. URL: []
 * 39) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">“Video 3: A decorator crab reusing its old decorations from its moult”. Source: theyangman, obtained and accredited under fair use. URL: []
 * 40) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">“Figure 8: A Sheep crab with a layer of algae on its carapace”, by Klaus Stiefel. [CC BY-NC 2.0 ([])] URL: []
 * 41) <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">“Figure 9: Velcro crab”, by Ria Tan. [CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/)] URL: []
 * 42) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">“Figure 10: Global distribution of the Velcro crab (Camposcia retusa)". Source: Discover Life. For public use. URL: []
 * 43) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">“Figure 11: Different zones of a coastal”. Source: Biodiversity BC. Illustration by: Soren Henrich, Watershed Moment Communication. Permission granted. Obtained through personal communication.
 * 44) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">“Figure 12: Record of Maia retusa in Latreille (1829)". Digitised by: Harvard University, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Ernst Mayr. Not in copyright. URL: [|https://archive.org/stream/lescrustacsles01latr#page/60/mode/2up]
 * 45) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">“Figure 13: Record of Camposcia in Latreille (1829). Digitised by: Harvard University, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Ernst Mayr. Not in copyright. URL: [|https://archive.org/stream/lescrustacsles01latr#page/60/mode/2up]
 * 46) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">“Figure 14: Phylogenetic tree of the decorator crabs (superfamily: Majoidea), shown as a Bayesian consensus tree”. Adapted from Hultgren & Stachowicz in [29]. Permission granted. Modifications: highlighted relevant section.
 * 47) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">“Table 1: Bootstrap (maximum likelihood) and posterior probability (Bayesian) values for selected clades resolved by single-locus and combined dataset trees using different methods”. Source: Hultgren & Stachowicz in [29].
 * 48) <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: left;">"Distribution of Camposcia retusa in Singapore". Adapted from: Ria Tan. URL: https://www.flickr.com/photos/wildsingapore/tags/Camposcia%2520retusa/map?&fLat=1.2622&fLon=103.8661&zl=11&order_by=recent