Sonneratia+alba+(Mangrove+Apple)

//Sonneratia alba // Sm. Mangrove Apple



= = = = = = = =

toc = = =Name = Binomial: //Sonneratia// //alba// J. Smith (1816)

Common: Mangrove Apple, Perepat, Bedada, 杯萼海桑 , Valko-omenamangrove, Nakshathrakandel

Native Global Distribution


Mangrove apple is a widespread pioneer mangrove species found between latitude of 25° N and 25°S (Tomlinson 1986) in Indo-West Pacific region from East Africa (Mozambique), Madagascar through the India (Sundarbans), Southeast Asia, to northern Australia (Daintree River), and Pacific Islands (New Caledonia).

Mangroves distribution in Singapore




Singapore used to have 13% of its land covered by mangrove forest before 1819. By 1960s, many had been cleared for development; currently, there are only approximately 500ha left in isolated small patches (green dots). All labelled mangroves patches, except for Mandai Mangrove, are accessible to public and readers are encouraged to visit them.

Habitats


Mangrove apple is found in low-intertidal habitat in regions of high to moderate rainfall where it receives both fresh and saltwater input. It grows on consolidated mud and sand along river banks, and within sheltered shores of islands where wave energy is low and sedimentation occurs. The soil is often waterlogged, soft and yet compacted which sinks when you step on it. The well compaction of soil has little spaces for atmospheric oxygen resulting in an anaerobic condition. Sulphur oxidising bacteria thrive on decaying plants and animals materials, releasing hydrogen sulphide in the process which gives the smell of rotten eggs that characterise mangrove habitat.

How to Identify


its slightly vertical fissured bark distinguished it from other mangrove species.
 * Growth Form: ** It is a evergreen tree, with a broad, spreading canopy, up to 30 m tall.



It bears thick and blunt pneumatophores which are conical roots that emerged out of the mud and grow up to 1 m tall, which are exposed during low tides and submerged during high tide.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Roots: **




 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Foliage: **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> leaves are simple and stalked. Opposite leaves are elliptic to ovate or obovate in shape, with a rounded or broad leaf tip, petiole 5-10 mm long. Lamina is 5-11 cm long and 4-8 cm wide. It bears the characteristic pink mark at the tip of young leaves.




 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Flowers: **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> Its white petaled flowers, often 6 ribbed, bear numerous white stamens which give it a puffy like appearance. The flowers are borne in clusters of 5-8, and only bloom between dusk to dawn.


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Fruits: **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Its hard fruits resemble fleshy berries that are round and flattened, with a cup-shaped calyx at the base of the fruit. The calyx is reflected backwards from the protruding style and towards the stalk. Mature fruit is approximately 2-4.5 cm across which ripens to green with a dull surface. When ripe, the fruits dropped off the parent tree and start to decay. The decomposing exocarp would break open to release numerous tiny seeds contained inside.




 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Seeds: **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> //S.alba// is a non-viviparous plant, hence it produce 100 – 150 seeds in each fruit which ranges 10-15 mm in length, small in comparison to most other mangroves.

Differentiate <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: center;">Between //S.alba// against other //Sonneratia// spp.

<span style="color: #00823b; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 21.3333px;">Adaptations
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Mangrove apple, like many other mangrove species, have several adaptation to cope with the harsh condition of mangrove habitat.


 * **<span style="color: #9bbb59; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Adaptation ** || **<span style="color: #9bbb59; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Mechanism ** ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Salt tolerance || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">To avoid the toxic effects of salts, the plant absorbs a large quantity of water for dilution of salt. Retention of water in the leaves give rise to leaf enabling them to store high concentration of salts in tissue. ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Salt exclusion || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Using ultrafiltration at root level, the plant is able to restrict uptake of salt in high salinity environment. ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Salt secretion || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">1) Leaves have salt glands, which actively secrete salt out of the plant. The salts will then be washed away by rain. Next time if you see shiny crystals on the leaves, lick it to taste!

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">2) Channel the excess salts in its older leaves which carry it with them when they drop. ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Pneumatophores || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Pencil roots rising above the soil allows roots to have access to atmospheric oxygen in the anaerobic soil condition. Roots also possess air cavities in root tissues that aid oxygenation of the tissues. ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Small buoyant seed || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Seeds are white, tiny (12 mm L), sickle-shaped and buoyant. It is able to stay afloat for a period of time which aid in sea dispersal. Its tiny size allows it to enter small creeks and established itself. The seedlings undergo <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">epigeal germination. ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Fast Growth || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Rapid root development enables it to anchor to the soil and overcome the countering wave action that threatens its survival. The trade-off for fast growth is having low seed-viability; hence a lot of seeds were produced and dispersed each generation. ||

<span style="color: #00823b; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 21.3333px;">Reproduction
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">The reproductive cycle took approximately 4–5 months in Mangrove apple. Flowering and fruit fall occurred during the dry period and short rainy season respectively.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">**Flowering and Fruiting season**

 * **<span style="color: #9bbb59; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Region ** || **<span style="color: #9bbb59; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Period ** ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Sarawak || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">January – April ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">India || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">February – May ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Australia || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">May – August ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Kenya || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">July – October ||



<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">The fragrant, night-blooming //Sonneratia// flowers are pollinated mainly by the Dawn Bat (//Eonycteris spelaea//), the Common Long-tailed Bat (//Macroglossus minimus//), and the Lesser Short-nosed Fruit Bat (//Cynopterus brachyotis//). These bats feed on nectar and pollen of flowers and rely mainly on //Sonneratia// for nourishment. The Dawn Bat in particular which also pollinate commercially important crops such as durians, relies on //Sonneratia// for food when durian flowers are not in bloom. Mangrove apple is also able to undergo self-pollination when pollinators are lacking.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Pollination **

**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Hybridisation **
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Natural hybridisation occurs at a high rate between //S.alba//, //S.ovata// and //S.caseolaris//.



<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">The hybrids in //Sonneratia// have reduced fitness in comparison with their parental species. The percentage of sterile pollen in //S//. × //gulngai// and //S//. × //hainanensis// are significantly higher than parental plants as shown by Zhou et al. 2008.

<span style="color: #00823b; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 21.3333px;">Importance of Mangroves
> > > > > >
 * 1) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Mangroves prevent erosion by stabilising sediments with their roots system. <span class="st" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Since Mangrove apple is a pioneer mangrove species, it would be the first line of natural wave breakers that protect <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">coastline against storms and erosion.
 * 1) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Pioneer species like Mangrove apple is essential in modifying the soil condition first before other mangrove species can colonised.
 * 1) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Mangroves act as filters for upland runoff. This is important for the health of corals which require clear water for symbiotic zooxanthellae to undergo photosynthesis.
 * 1) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Mangroves serve as a nursery for many marine organisms such as fish, shrimp, crustaceans and molluscs (see video below). Mangroves provide refuge for juveniles that were too vulnerable to enter the ocean. Eg. //Birgus latro// (Coconut crab)
 * 1) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Mangroves produce large amounts of detritus that may contribute to productivity in offshore waters.
 * 1) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Sonneratia show great medical potential for future drugs. Mangrove apple’s bark showed significant antioxidant cytotoxic and antimicrobial properties against harmful bacteria (//M. luteus,////Escherichia coli// and //Pseudomonas aeruginosa// // and //// Candida albicans //// ) ////<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">. //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> Furthermore, secondary metabolites (eg Xanalteric acid) were extracted from an endophytic fungus Alternaria species inside Mangrove apple that displayed antibiotic activity against multidrug-resistant bacteria (//Staphylococcus aureus//).
 * 1) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Sonneratia spp. are rich in tannin which is an antimicrobial agent used in prevention of dental caries.
 * 2) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Mangroves have high carbon storage, much higher than tropical rainforest as documented by Donato et al. 2011. Hence mangrove will act as a good blue carbon for climate change mitigation measures.


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Especially to Singapore **
 * 1) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Singapore mangroves serve as an important stop-over for migratory birds flying from the northern Eurasian continent to Africa and southern parts of Asia along the East Asian Australasian Flyway to escape winter. Annual migration traffic can reach as high as 12 to 15 thousand million birds.


 * 1) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Mangrove apple ensures the survival of Dawn Bat, an important animal pollination vector of durian, <span class="st" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">when seasonal durian flowers are not in bloom. W <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">ithout //Sonneratia//, Dawn Bat would not survive long period of starvation between blooming seasons of durian tree. As a result, there would be less of Singapore’s favourite fruit.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 16px;">This video showed the aquatic biodiversity that mangroves support thus highlighting the important role that they play.

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<span style="color: #00823b; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 21.3333px; line-height: 1.5;">**Threats**





<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">There are both natural and man-made threats to mangrove forest, but anthropogenic threats are causing mangroves loss at a rapid rate beyond reestablishment rate. Once these mangroves are lost, restoration of the mangrove forest back to its original vigor is difficult. This section will focus on the man-made threats to mangroves globally.

> >
 * 1) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Land clearing due to urbanisation and changing the landscape for human use is the greatest threat to mangrove. Land was also cleared for aquaculture, which netted high profits for the first few years, but lost its productivity subsequently; and was abandoned.
 * 2) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Changing hydrodynamic especially from the increase in shipping around previously low energy shores, is increasing the wave energy causing erosion, tree fall. Increase wave action also act as a physical disturbance that limit seedlings establishment.
 * 3) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Reservoir construction not only change saltwater environment to freshwater, it also prevent sediments input downstream which is need for accretion and mangrove to self-sustaining.
 * 4) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Excessive sediments were flushed out of the city during construction results in excessive soil accretion. If sediment deposition is above critical threshold level, it will bury and suffocate mangroves seedlings and prevent colonization.
 * 5) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">When sea level rise, mangroves will naturally migrate landwards towards higher ground to prevent prolong tidal inundation. However, due to human encroachment, mangroves are unable to retreat inland, resulting in coastal squeeze. A slight increment of water level of even 1 cm, would result in huge changes in mangrove habitat; and together with prolong tidal inundation, could literally drown mangrove plants to death.

<span style="color: #00823b; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 21.3333px;">Conservation


<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">The mangrove apple is listed as Least Concern because there is not enough loss currently to reach threatened category threshold despite overall range declines in many areas due to habitat loss or extraction over the years. Continued monitoring and research is recommended by IUCN, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas. Mangrove apple has been planted in mangrove restoration projects in India and Philippines. Despite being listed as Least Concern, mangrove apple is a keystone species in the mangrove and faced great potential of rapid loss if they were not monitored carefully. If they were lost, many other mangrove species and animals would face great risk of extinction as well.

<span style="color: #00823b; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">Etymology
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Sonneratia was named after the French naturalist, Pierre Sonnerat (1748-1814), in remembrance of his explorations of New Guinea, Moluccas and China; and his works on the first European description of lychee fruit.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">‘Alba’ means // white //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> in Latin which refers to the distinctive white stamens and petals of this species.

<span style="color: #00823b; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">Synonyms
//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Chiratia //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> //leucantha// Montr. //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sonneratia //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> //acida// Benth. //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sonneratia //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> //iriomotensis// Masam. //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sonneratia //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> //mossambicensis// Klotzsch ex Peters

<span style="color: #00823b; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 21.3333px;">Type Information
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 120%;">Sonneratia alba was first described in Cyclopedia 33 1816 No. 2 by J. Smith.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Type Status || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Typified Name || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Location ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Syntype || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Sonneratia acida var. mucronata || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Nationaal Herbarium Nederland ||

<span style="color: #00823b; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 21.3333px;">Taxonavigation
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">The classification of //Sonneratia alba// above the species level are as follows. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">> Plantae <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">> Tracheophyta <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">> Magnoliopsida <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">> Myrtales <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">> Lythraceae <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">> <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Sonneratiaceae <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">> <span class="genera" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Sonneratia alba

<span style="color: #00823b; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 21.3333px;">Phylogenetic Tree


<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Phylogenetic analyses on DNA sequences of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and the //5.8S// coding region of the nuclear ribosomal DNA were performed by Shi et.al 2000. Maximum parsimony analysis, treating gaps as missing data, generated a single most parsimonious tree which showed that genus Sonneratia (Sonneratiaceae) formed a monophyletic group supported by 100% bootstrap value. The clade of the genus Duabanga (Sonneratiaceae) and Lagerstroemia (Lythraceae) is sister to the clade of Sonneratia. Hence <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Sonneratiaceae is not a distinct family rank but subset of family <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Lythraceae.

<span style="color: #00823b; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 21.3333px;">Links for further reading
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">[|Mangrove Watch] for identifying between Sonneratia spp and hybrids.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Encyclopedia of Life for general overview of Sonneratia alba.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Mangrove and wetlands wildlife at Sungei Buloh Wetlands Reserve on Sungei buloh Mangrove in Singapore.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Mangroves of Singapore on Mandai mangrove in Singapore

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Wild Singapore for awesome photos of mangroves flora and fauna.

<span style="color: #00823b; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 21.3333px;">Acknowledgement
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">I would like to thank all the people who had made this page possible, by willingly providing materials and valuable advice. I would like to specially thank Ms Ria Tan, Mr Wan Hong, Phil Myers and Dr Pierre Grard for their wonderful pictures that made my page more attractive; Dr Alison Wee, Dr Edward Webb and Dr Daniel Friess for inspiring me to work on mangroves and loving them. Mr Rick Leong for the field work experience. Special thanks to Constance Teo, Heng Ah Kim and Teo Buck Poo for giving me the support that I can always count on.

<span style="color: #00823b; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 21.3333px;">References
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Clifton, E. & Duke, N., 2012. Australian Mangrove and Saltmarsh Resource, Sonneratia. Retrieved Nov 09, 2013, from []

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Corlett, R.T., 1991. //Vegetation. The biophysical environment of Singapore,// Singapore University Press, Singapore, pp134–154.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Coupland, G.T., E.I. Paling & K.A. McGuinness, 2005. Vegetative and reproductive phenologies of four mangrove species from Northern Australia. //Australian Journal of Botany,// **53**: 109–117.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> Coupland, G.T., E.I. Paling & K.A. McGuinness, 2006. Floral abortion and pollination in four species of tropical mangroves from northern Australia. //Aquatic Botany//, **84**: 151–157.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Donato, D. C., J. B. Kauffman, D. Murdiyarso, S. Kurnianto, M. Stidham & M. Kanninen, 2011. Mangroves among the most carbon-rich forests in the tropics. //Nature Geoscience,// **4**: 293–297.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Friess, D. A., J. Phelps, R. C. Leong, W. K. Lee, A. K. S. Wee, Sivasothi N, R. R. Y. Oh & E. L. Webb, 2012. Mandai mangrove, Singapore: lessons for the conservation of Southeast Asia’s mangroves. //Raffles Bulletin of Zoology//,**25**: 55–65

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Gibson, R.N., M. Barnes & R. J. A. Atkinson, 2003. //Oceanography and Marine Biology, An Annual Review, Volume: 40//. CRC Press, London, 704pp. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">India Biodiversity Portal, Sonneratia alba. Retrieved Nov 09, 2013, from []

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Kaewpiboon, C., K. Lirdprapamongkol, C. Srisomsap, P. Winayanuwattikun, T. Yongvanich, P.Puwaprisirisan, J. Svasti & W. Assavalapsakul, 2012. Studies of the in vitro cytotoxic, antioxidant, lipase inhibitory and antimicrobial activities of selected Thai medicinal plants. //BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine//, **12**: 217.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Kathiresan, K. & S. Z. Qasim, 2005. //Biodiversity of Mangrove Ecosystems//. Hindustan Publishing Corporation, New Delhi, 256pp.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Kjer, J., V. Wray, R. Edrada-Ebel, R. Ebel, A. Pretsch, W. H. Lin & P. Proksch, 2009. Xanalteric Acids I and II and Related Phenolic Compounds from an Endophytic Alternaria sp. Isolated from the Mangrove Plant Sonneratia alba. Journal of Natural Products, **72**: 2053–2057.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Mangrove and wetland wildlife at Sungei Buloh Nature Park, Mangrove Apple. Retrieved Nov 01, 2013, from []

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Milon, M. A., M. A. Muhit, D. Goshwami, M. M. Masud & B. Begum, 2012. Antioxidant, Cytotoxic and Antimicrobial Activity of Sonneratia alba Bark. //International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research//, **3**(7): 2233–2237.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">National Parks Singapore, Sonneratia alba. Retrieved Oct 28, 2013, from []

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Shahbudin, S., M. Taher, D. Susanti, H. Qaralleh & A. F. I. B. Awang, 2012. In vitro antimicrobial activity of mangrove plant Sonneratia alba. //Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine//, 2(6): 427–429.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Shi, S., Y. Huang, F. Tan, X. He & D. E. Boufford, 2000. Phylogenetic Analysis of the Sonneratiaceae and its Relationship to Lythraceae Based on ITSSequences of nrDNA. //Journal of Plant Research,// **113:** 253–258.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Sivasothi, N., 2003. Significance of Singapore’s Mandai mangrove and mudflats. Retrieved Nov 20, 2013 from []

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">The IUCN Red list of Threatened Species, Sonneratia alba. Retrieved Nov 12, 2013, from []

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Tomascik, T., 1997. //The Ecology of the Indonesian seas Part 2//. Periplus Editions (HK) Ltd, Singapore, 1388pp.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Tomlinson, P.B., 1994. //The Botany of Mangroves Cambridge Tropical Biology Series//. Reprint. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 419pp.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Wang, R., Z. Chen, E. Chen & X. Zheng, 1999. Two hybrids of the genus //Sonneratia// (Sonneratiaceae) from China. //Guihaia//, **19**: 199–204.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Wang’ondu, V. W., J.G. Kairo, J.I.Kinyamario, F.B. Mwaura, J.O. Bosire, F. Dahdouh-Guebas & N. Koedam, 2013. Vegetative and reproductive phenological traits of //Rhizophora mucronata// Lamk. and //Sonneratia alba// Sm. //Flora//, **208** : 522–531.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">William, J.M. & J. G. Gosselink, 2011. //Wetlands.// John Wiley & Sons, New Jersey, 600pp.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Zhou, R.C., X. Gong, D. Boufford, C.I. Wu & S. Shi, 2008. Testing a hypothesis of unidirectional hybridization in plants: Observations on //Sonneratia, Bruguiera// and //Ligularia. BMC Evolutionary Biology////, **8**: 149.//

<span style="color: #00823b; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 21.3333px;">Contact and Comments

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 110%;">Jessica Teo <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 110%;">blazingstar91@gmail.com <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 110%;">Last modified on November 2013

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<span style="display: block; height: 1px; left: -40px; overflow: hidden; position: absolute; top: 3296px; width: 1px;"> 2) concentrate it in bark or in older leaves which carry it with them when they drop. || <span style="display: block; height: 1px; left: -40px; overflow: hidden; position: absolute; top: 4374.5px; width: 1px;"> ** || <span style="display: block; height: 1px; left: -40px; overflow: hidden; position: absolute; top: 4527.5px; width: 1px;"> Clifton, E. & Duke, N., 2012. Australian Mangrove and Saltmarsh Resource, Sonneratia. Retrived Nov 09, 2013, from []
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 * Salt tolerance || the retention of water in the leaves giving rise to leaf succulence in many species, viz., Sonneratia apetala, S. alba, Lumnitzera recemosa, Salvadora persica etc. These species show remarkably high concentration of salts stored in their tissue. To avoid the toxic effects of salts, these plants absorb a large quantity of water for dilution of salt ||
 * Salt exclusion || Using ultrafiltration at root level, the plant is able to restrict uptake of salt in high salinity environment. ||
 * Salt secretion || 1) leaves of many mangroves have special salt glands, which are among the most active salt-secreting systems known. It is quite possible to see and/or taste the salt on the leaf surfaces of species, which choose this method. the salts were then washed away by rain.
 * Pneumatophores || Pencil roots rising above the soil allows roots to have access to atmospheric oxygen in the anaerobic soil condition. Roots also can exhibit development of air cavities in root tissues, designs that aid oxygenation of the tissues ||
 * Small buoyant seed || S.alba seeds are white tiny (12 mm L), sickle-shaped and buoyant. ** Can float for how long **. Enter small creeks and established itself easier compared to propagules of RIzhoporachia. The seedlings undergoes epigeal germination. ** How long to established roots? ** ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Fast Growth || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">fast growing, but has low seed-viability, pioneering species of the mangrove habitat. it can be the dominant species along with //A. marina//, forming a tree line along the seaward margin of its range ||
 * **<span style="color: #9bbb59; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Adaptation ** || **<span style="color: #9bbb59; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Mechanisminclude component="navigation" flat

India Biodiversity Portal, Sonneratia alba. Retrived Nov 09, 2013, from [] Mangrove and wetland wildlife at Sungei Buloh Nature Park, Mangrove Apple. Retrieved Nov 01, 2013, from []

National Parks Singapore, Sonneratia alba. Retrieved Oct 28, 2013, from [] <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">The IUCN Red list of Threatened Species, Sonneratia alba. Retrieved Nov 12, 2013, from [] Coupland, G.T., E.I. Paling & K.A. McGuinness, 2005. Vegetative and reproductive phenologies of four mangrove species from Northern Australia. //Australian Journal of Botany,// **53**: 109–117. Wang’ondu, V. W., J.G. Kairo, J.I.Kinyamario, F.B. Mwaura, J.O. Bosire, F. Dahdouh-Guebas & N. Koedam, 2013. Vegetative and reproductive phenological traits of //Rhizophora mucronata// Lamk. and //Sonneratia alba// Sm. //Flora//, **208** : 522<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">–531. Shi, S., Y. Huang, F. Tan, X. He & D. E. Boufford, 2000. Phylogenetic Analysis of the Sonneratiaceae and its Relationship to Lythraceae Based on ITS Sequences of nrDNA. //Journal of Plant Research,// **113:** 253–258. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">Tomlinson, P.B., 1994. //The Botany of Mangroves Cambridge Tropical Biology Series//. Reprint. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 419pp Tomascik, T., 1997. //The Ecology of the Indonesian seas Part 2//. Periplus Editions (HK) Ltd, Singapore, 1388pp. <span style="display: block; height: 1px; left: -40px; overflow: hidden; position: absolute; top: 6151.5px; width: 1px;"> It bears thick and blunt pneumatophores which are conical roots that emerged out of the mud and grow up to 1 m tall, which are exposed during low tides and submerged during high tide. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> <span style="display: block; height: 1px; left: -40px; overflow: hidden; position: absolute; top: 6675.5px; width: 1px;"> The mangrove apple is listed as Least Concern because there is not enough loss currently to reach threatened category threshold despite overall range declines in many areas due to habitat loss or extraction over the years. Continued monitoring and research is recommended by IUCN, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas. Mangrove apple has been planted in mangrove restoration projects in India and Philippines. Despite being listed as Least Concern, mangrove apple is a keystone species in the mangrove and faced great potential of rapid loss if they were not monitored carefully. If they were lost, many other mangrove species and animals would face great risk of extinction as well.