Psittacula longicauda

=**//Psittacula longicauda// (Boddaert, 1783)**= toc

Figure 1. //Psittacula longicauda//, observed in Singapore on the 25th September 2017 (Photo: [|Catalina Tong])

**Name** Binomial: //Psittacula longicauda// Vernacular (English): Long-tailed parakeet

Etymology
The species epithet is derived from Latin //pugnax//, which means 'warlike, ready to fight'. It is probably a reference towards the quarrelsome nature of the species towards conspecifics.

Synonyms
//Psittacus longicauda// [|Boddaert, 1783]

Figure 2:

Distribution
//Psittacula longicauda// may be found in the Andaman and Nicobar islands, India, Coco islands, Myanmar, peninsular Thailand, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular Malaysia, in Singapore, Kalimantan, including the Natuna Islands, in Sumatra, including the Riau Islands, Indonesia and is widespread in Brunei (BirdLife International, 2016).

//Psittacula longicauda// is native to the following countries: Brunei Darussalam; India; Indonesia; Malaysia; Myanmar; Singapore and Thailand (BirdLife International, 2016).

The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very common and widespread in southern and north-east Borneo (S. Myers in litt . 2016), locally common in Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia and common in Brunei, the Andaman islands, the Nicobar islands and in Singapore (del Hoyo et al. 1997, D. L. Yong in litt . 2016).



Figure 3. Distribution of //Psittacula longicauda// (yellow and orange hexagons), based on 1061 recorded occurences, as of 19th October 2017. Image is a screenshot obtained from [|Global Biodiversity Information Facility]. Figure 4. Distribution of 1061 recorded occurences, as of 19th October 2017. Image is a screenshot obtained from [|Global Biodiversity Information Facility].

Figure 5. Distribution of //Psittacula longicauda//, as depicted by the dark shaded areas. Image is a screenshot taken from [|Parrots: A Guide to Parrots of the World].

Habitats
//Psittacula longicauda// is a resident species in Singapore and may be found in old secondary forest, young secondary forest and plantations (Castelletta et al., 2005).

//Psittacula longicauda// may be found in all types of lowland (typified as below 300m in Sumatra), evergreen forest in mangroves, swamp-forest, rainforest, oil-palm (//Elaeis//) plantations and coconut groves (Parr & Juniper, 2010). The species may show a preference for high forest edges with large dead trees, including the proximity of cultivated areas (Parr & Juniper, 2010).

In Nicobar, the species has been spotted visiting parks and gradens (Parr & Juniper, 2010).

The species is gregarious; with flocks numbering in the thousands seen in Andamans and Borneo, but smaller flocks of less than 20 may be more typical, especially during breeding seasons (Parr & Juniper, 2010).

In Kalimantan, mixed flocks of //Psittacula longicauda// with the Blue-rumped parrots have been sighted (Parr & Juniper).

In the type locality (Malacca, Malaysia)



Diagnosis
//Psittacula longicauda// may be differentiated from its congeners Blythe's Parakeet (Nicobar islands), Red-breasted and Alexandrine Parakeets in Andaman islands and the feral Ring-necked Parakeet in Singapore by a combination of the following distinguishing characteristics: red cheeks, green crown, pale grey-green nape and mantle, and long blue central tail.

From: Parr & Juniper, 2010

[[image:roseringed_parakeet_m_3_nvm.jpg]]
Figure x: A rose-ringed parakeet (ring-necked parakeet, //Psittacula krameri//) which may also be found in Singapore. The red beak and ring around the neckdistinguishes it from the long-tailed parakeet. Image by [|Niraj V. Mistry (2005)].

Description
//"The head is much depressed, and far broader than the body, which is gradually compressed towards the caudal fin. The profile of the back is slightly arched,// //the highest part being at the dorsal spine; the abdominal profile is less arched than the former."// - Cantor, in his original description

General Measurements
Wing: 143 - 155 mm Tail: 154 - 270 mm Bill: 20 - 24 mm Tarsus: 15 -17 mm

From: Parr & Juniper, 2010

//Psittacula longicauda// may weigh between 170 - 200 grams and measure between 40 - 50 cm (The Dynamic Nature).

Sound
The species may generally be located by its racuous cries made from the canopy. It has a wide variety of loud screeches and cries: a high-pitched //peeyo-peeyo-peeyo//, a goose-like //graak-graak-graak//, and a scolding //cheet-cheet-cheet// sound made in bursts.

Its voice is similar to the Ring-necked Parakeet (rose-ringed parakeet, //Psittacula krameri//).

From: Parr & Juniper, 2010 media type="custom" key="29437883" media type="file" key="Psittacula_longicauda_1_(25Mar11).mp3" width="240" height="20" Audio 1: The call of the long-tailed parakeet while in flight. Audio file with sonogram taken from [|xeno-canto]. Audio file was recorded by Eric Cannizzaro (Bornean Bird Conservation), and recorded in [|Planted Forests Zone, Wildlife Buffer, Sarawak] on the 25th March 2011.

media type="custom" key="29437887" media type="file" key="XC164588 - Long-tailed Parakeet - Psittacula longicauda longicauda.mp3" width="240" height="20"

Audio 2: The screeching calls of the long-tailed parakeet. Audio file with sonogram taken from [|xeno-canto]. Audio file was recorded by Yong Ding Li, and recorded in [|Central Catchment Nature Reserve] on the 14th January 2014.

media type="custom" key="29437917" media type="file" key="XC209349 - Rose-ringed Parakeet - Psittacula krameri.mp3" width="240" height="20" Audio 3: The screeching calls of the rose-ringed parakeet (//Psittacula krameri//). Audio file with sonogram taken from [|xeno-canto]. Audio file was recorded by Robson Silva e Silva, and recorded in [|Begraafplaats, Leiden, Holland (Netherlands)] on the 29th December 2014.

**Coloration**
//Psittacula longicauda// has overall green plumage and a dark green crown.

The rump and uppertail coverts are green. The underwing-coverts are yellowish. Its lores are blackish-green. The nape and mantle are a pale grey-green and fades to a bright blue back. The central tail feathers areudio blue with yellow tips; outer tail feathers are green.

The cheeks, ear-coverts and hindneck are a bright salmon-pink to red colour. The lower cheeks and chin are black in colour.

The lesser and median coverts are dark green-black, whereas the primary coverts, outer coverts and outer secondaries are blue.

The underparts are yellow-green and greener on the breast.

From: Parr & Juniper, 2010

**Bare parts**
The upper mandible is red while the lower mandible is brown. The cere is pale grey.

The iris is yellow and the legs are grey. From: Parr & Juniper, 2010 Figure. The upper body of //Psittacula longicauda//, observed in Singapore on the 25th September 2017 (Photo: [|Catalina Tong]) This photo displays the largely green colouration of its plumage, with a distinct red upper mandible, red cheeks and black lores.

**Sexing**
The female of the species has a shorter tail, brownish beak, and dark-green cheek patches instead of black cheek patches.

Young males will show a bluish patch on the lower back and reddish upper mandible.

From: Parr & Juniper, 2010 Figure x: female long-tailed parakeet with some food in its beak

Juvenile
The juvenile of the species is also largely green, but with brown-pink upper cheeks and dark patches on lower cheeks and chin. Figure x: Juvenile long-tailed parakeet peeking out from a nest hole in a tree.

The photos below (Figure x-x) are of a juvenile long-tailed parakeet. Specimen was collected by Ananthanarayanan Sankar on the 8th March 2017. Photos by Crystal Ho, 2017. Figure x: Dorsal view of a juvenile long-tailed parakeet with a short tail relative to the length of its body. There is a hint of blue in the tail.

Figure x: Ventral view

Figure x: head of the juvenile. Note the orange beak and hint of pink in the cheeks.

Figure x: underwing coverts

Figure x: outer wings

Behaviour
The species may generally be found in small, noisy flocks that fly fast with great agility (Parr & Juniper, 2010).

Figure x: confrontation between female and male parakeets. Female is on the left; male is on the right. Squabbles do occur between conspecifics but not to the extent of the Siamese fighting fish //Betta splendens//. In captive specimens, it has been observed that fights substantially decrease once a hierarchy has been established amongst a group, and subsequently, serious damage rarely occurs (pers. obs.). When alarmed, these fish tend to scuttle into submerged leaf litter (Tan, 2011, pers. comm.).

Feeding Habits
//Psittacula longicauda// is a frugivorous bird and was counted at a higher number in Macritchie than Nee Soon in a single study, possibly due to there being more fruiting trees in Macritchie than in Nee Soon (Sodhi, 2002).

//Psittacula longicauda// may feed on camphor //Dryobalanops// and //Dillenia// fruit, orchard and plantation fruit (for example, oil palm //Elaeis//), grain, seeds, ripening rice in the Andaman Islands, and oil palm fruit in the Malay Peninsula (Parr & Juniper, 2010).

Reproduction
//Psittacula longicauda// may typically nest high up in cavities of dead trees, with clutches of 2 - 3 eggs laid on decaying wood and bark. Nesting heights have been reported at 4m, 10m and 45m. The species breeds in colonies. The eggs are laid between December to February and the nestlings appear in July.

From: Parr & Juniper, 2010

Taxonavigation

 * **Taxonomic Hierachy** ||  ||
 * Kingdom || Animalia ||
 * Subkingdom || Bilateria ||
 * Infrakingdom || Deuterostomia ||
 * Phylum || Chordata ||
 * Subphylum || Vertebrata ||
 * Infraphylum || Gnathostomata ||
 * Superclass || Osteichthyes ||
 * Class || Aves ||
 * Order || Psittaciformes ||
 * Family || Psittacidae ||
 * Subfamily || Psittacinae ||
 * Genus || Psittacula Cuvier, 1800 ||
 * Species || //Psittacula longicauda// (Boddaert, 1873) ||
 * Species || //Psittacula longicauda// (Boddaert, 1873) ||

Subspecies
//Psittacula longicauda// currently has 5 recognised subspecies.

//Psittacula longicauda defontainei// Chasen, 1935 //Psittacula longicauda longicauda// (Boddaert, 1783) //Psittacula longicauda modesta// (Fraser, 1845) //Psittacula longicauda nicobarica// (Gould, 1857) //Psittacula longicauda tytleri// (Hume, 1874)

From: Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS)

Phylogeny
The hypothesized evolution of species can be inferred from phylogenetic studies. The partial phylogeny of the genus //Betta// was derived by Rüber et al. (2004; Figure 11), with the complete molecular systematics of the genus currently in the works (Tan, 2011, pers. comm.).



Figure 11. Molecular phylogeny of the genus //Betta// derived using nuclear (RAG1) and mitochondrial (CytB, 12S rRNA, tRNA Val, 16S rRNA) nucleotide sequence data (4448 base pairs), with two Luciocephalinae taxa used as outgroups. Major //Betta// clades are denoted by: A - //pugnax//, B - //albimarginata//, C - //coccina//, D - //foerschi//, E - //splendens//, F - //unimaculata//, G - //macrostoma//. Boxes indicate //Betta// species, circles non-//Betta// species; fill colour denotes breeding mode: grey - mouthbrooding, black - bubble-nesting (From: Rüber et al., 2004; permission for use of figure obtained).

Green shading denotes member of the //Betta pugnax// complex group, and though the molecular systematics of the genus //Betta// is yet to be fully elucidated (Tan, 2011, pers. comm.), it is clear that the //Betta pugnax// complex group does not form a monophyletic clade. Rather, as Ruber et al. (2004) denoted, the least inclusive monophyletic clade involving all members of the //Betta pugnax// complex group (in yellow) also encompass members the //Betta anabatoides//, //Betta waseri//, //Betta picta//, //Betta dimidiata// and //Betta edithae// complex groups. The complex groups within the genus //Betta// should thus not be confused with the concept of species complexes.

The study also hypothesized a model of brood care evolution within the genus. By applying different weights for the postulated directionality of changes (from bubble-nesting to mouthbrooding, or vice versa), based on phenotypic and behavioural differences between the two forms of brood care, the recurrent evolution of mouthbrooding is favoured using parsimony, with bubble-nesting as the plesiomorphic condition (Rüber et al., 2004).

Type Information
A type specimen refers to a specimen or a group of specimens to which a species (scientific) name is officially attached to. It acts as //the// reference to all defining characteristics of that species.

//Psittacula longicauda// has 3 [|holotype]s. [|MNHN ZO MO-2004-81] || [|The birds collection (ZO) of the Muséum national d'Histoire Naturelle (MNHN - Paris)] ||
 * Holotype || Source ||
 * [|NHMUK ZOO 1855.12.19.289] || [|Natural History Museum (London) Collection Specimens] ||
 * [|NHMUK ZOO 1855.12.19.289] || [|Natural History Museum (London) Collection Specimens] ||
 * Anonyme Malaysia.

The lectotype for //Psittacula longicauda// is stored in the Muséum national d'Histoirenaturelle de Paris ([|MNHN ZO MO-2004-81] ). paralectotype?

The type locality for //Psittacula longicauda// is Malacca, Malaysia.





Conservation Status
//Psittacula longicauda// is recorded as Near-Threatened in the [|IUCN Red List], as of the latest update in 2016 (accessed 19th October 2017).

Figure. The species conservation status is in the Near Threatened category, according to the IUCN Red List. Image is a screenshot taken from the [|IUCN Red List] (accessed 19th October 2017).

The current population of //Psittacula longicauda// is decreasing, due to the following major threats: forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands, hunting and bird trade. Forest loss in the Sundaic lowlands is progressing at a fast rate due to logging, land conversion, obtaining valuable timber including those inside protected areas, and forest fires (especially in the period 1997 - 1998). Hunting of the species occurs when locals in south Sumatra hunt the bird for trade or treat it as a pest (M. Iqbal //in litt//. 2016). //Psittacula longicauda// may also be found in local markets or sold online (Iqbal, 2015) as part of the bird trade.

The IUCN justifies the Near Threatened conservation status due to the forest destruction in these locations: Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia, Thailand and Malaysia. The destruction is vast in Thailand and Malaysia - Kalimantan has lost almost 25% of evergreen forest from 1985 - 1997; Sumatra has lost almost 30% of its 1985 forest cover. However, due the ability of //Psittacula longicauda// to forage in locations away from forested areas, the decline in population numbers are estimated to be 20 - 30% in the past 10 years.

According to the IUCN, conservation actions are underway and the CITES Appendix II is part of the conservation actions proposed. Other conservation actions proposed include: monitoring the species in trade, monitoring habitat trends and deforestation rates in the Sundaic lowlands via the use of satellite images and remote sensing capabilities, researching ecology of //Psittacula longicauda// to better understand its nomadic movements, effectively protect large areas of suitable habitat at key sites in which the species resides in both protected and multiple use areas.

As Pets
//Betta pugnax// are generally undemanding in captivity, readily accepting processed food and breeding if optimal conditions are met (pers. obs.). Linke (1992) recommends housing in aquaria upwards of 70 cm long, 40 cm wide and 30 cm high, though they have been known to cope well in smaller tanks. Copious amounts of aquatic vegetation and hiding places should be provided for these generally retiring animals. Though some literature recommend the use of soft, slightly acidic water for this species, they are not fussy with water chemistry, being able to tolerate acidic to slightly alkaline water. Wild-caught fish should, however, be acclimatized carefully, and collection localities recorded. A cover should be fitted as these fish are excellent jumpers. As with all anabantoids, a layer of air must be kept between the water surface and tank cover as these fish are obligate air-breathers.

A small group of fishes can be kept together provided ample hiding places are provided. Other suitable tankmates include similar-sized, robust species with a peaceful demeanour, such as rasborines and some of the peaceable barb species. If breeding is to be attempted, it is recommended that a pair be kept alone. As males do not feed while brooding, they should be removed from the spawning tank upon release of fry, to allow for recuperation. Failure to do so may result in overeager females immediately initiating a new breeding cycle, upon which starvation may set in.

Figure 12. //Betta pugnax//, adult male, collected from Nee Soon Swamp Forest, Singapore. (Photo: Low Bi Wei)

Literature and References
Castelletta, M., Thiollay, J. M., & Sodhi, N. S. (2005). The effects of extreme forest fragmentation on the bird community of Singapore Island. //Biological conservation//, //121//(1), 135-155.

Parr, M., & Juniper, T. (2010). //Parrots: a guide to parrots of the world//. Bloomsbury Publishing.

Sodhi, N. S. (2002). The effects of food-supply on Southeast Asian forest birds. //Ornithological Science//, //1//(1), 89-93.

Links to other types of species pages
//Betta pugnax// - International Betta Congress Link //Betta pugnax// - Seriously Fish Link Forest Betta - Ecology Asia Link

Original Description
Excerpt from T. E. Cantor (1850), //Catalogue Of Malayan Fishes//: // "The head is much depressed, and far broader than the body, which is gradually compressed towards the caudal fin. The profile of the back is slightly arched, the highest part being at the dorsal spine; the abdominal profile is less arched than the former. The length of the head is 1/3, or slightly more, of the length of the body, the caudal not included; the depth at the occiput 2/3 of the length of the head. The eyes are prominent, occupying the second fourth, and bordering on the profile. Their distance across the forehead is nearly double the diameter. The mouth is semicircular, moderate; the angle is in front of the orbit. The posterior opening of the nostrils is situated close to the orbit; the anterior is provided with a small fleshy tube. The tongue is free, fleshy and very pointed. Behind the velvety teeth of the upper jaw appears successively three semicircular membranous folds, of which the posterior is papillular on the margin, which thus appears as if studded with a second series of minute teeth. The head is everywhere covered with large rounded scales like the rest of the body, but the slightly protractile jaws are naked; the posterior part of each branch of the lower jaw is covered by a single large oval scale. The greatest vertical diameter of the body, at the dorsal spine, is in some individuals 3/4 of, in others equal the length of the head. The vertical diameter at the root of the caudal fin varies from 5 1/2 to 1/6 of the length of the body. The dorsal fin commences a little behind the posterior half of the body; the rays gradually increase towards the fifth, the longest; the extent of the base is from 1/8 to 1/9 of the length of the body; the distance from the last ray to the caudal is 1/4 of the length of the body. The caudal is very broadly lanceolate; the two central rays are the longest, in some individuals 1/3 of the entire length of the fish, but frequently less. The length of the anterior filamentous ventral ray rarely exceeds that of the head. The pectorals are rounded. their length but slightly exceeds 1/2 of the head. Opposite their posterior half is situated the anus, immediately behind which the anal fin commences. The rays of the latter gradually increases in length to the twenty-third or fourth, which are sometimes elongated beyond the point of the caudal fin. The extent of the scaly base of the anal equals 1/2 of the length of the body. No lateral line appears, but on the series it would occupy if present, some of the anterior scales have each a central rounded depression, which, however, also appears on every single scales nearer the back. Three series lower down, on the posterior half of the sides, commences sometimes a row of similar depressions, which then continue to the caudal fin. The scales are rather large, higher than long; the anterior margin is straight with 21 striae, the posterior rounded, ciliate; a line from the gill-opening to the caudal fin contains 32; the greatest diameter presents 10. Of the six branchiostegous rays the upper one is longer and broader than the rest; the fifth and six are rounded, setaceous." //

Meristics & Morphometrics

 * Meristics:** 29-30 lateral scales; 19-22 predorsal scales; 5-8 subdorsal scales; 11-12 postdorsal scales; dorsal fin rays 0-2 spinous, 7-10 soft branched, segmented (total 8-10); anal fin rays 1-2 spinous, 24-26 soft branched (total 25-28); caudal fin rays 2 unbranched soft, 4+5 branched soft (total 11); pelvic fin rays 1 spinous, 1+1 soft branched (total 3); pectoral fin rays 13 soft branched; 28-31 vertebrae.


 * Morphometrics:** __Body__: Maximum known size 67.3 mm SL (ZRC 8306; Zoological References Collection, Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research). Total length 130.6-148.1% SL; predorsal length 60.9-73.4% SL; preanal length 40.6-51.2% SL; head length (HL) 27.5-35.2% SL; 41.6-54.3% predorsal length; body depth at dorsal fin origin 24.8-32.1% SL. __Fins__: Pelvic fin length 26.6-43.8% SL; length of anal fin base 44.2-54.0% SL; length of dorsal fin base 9.9-15.7% SL. __Head__: Orbital diameter 27.9-38.5% HL; postorbital length 45.0-55.7% HL; interorbital width 32.4-53.0% HL.

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