Tursiops+Aduncus+-+The+Indo-Pacific+Bottlenose+Dolphin

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 * Tursiops aduncus ****(Ehrenberg, 1832) ** Indo- Pacific Bottlenose Dolphin   Also commonly known as the Indian Ocean Bottlenose Dolphin, Red Sea Bottlenose Dolphin, Southern Bottlenose Dolphin.
 * the dolphins in captivity controversy
 * the physical appearance of the Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphin
 * where they are found in nature
 * how they behave in the wild
 * how they sleep and breathe concurrently in the water
 * their taxonomy
 * their conservation challenges around the world
 * what you can do to protect these animals

Do not worry if there are terms that are hard to understand. Terms with hyperlinks brings you to the Glossary Section.

=Dolphins in Singapore - The controversy =

//Tursiops aduncus//, the Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphin is a species of dolphin that is found in the seas surrounding Singapore. It is known to many Singaporeans that the housing of Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphins in [|Resorts World Sentosa (RWS)] has created much controversy. Organisations and institutions such as [|Animal Concerns Research & Education Society: (ACRES]) and [|Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animal (SPCA Singapore)] have voiced out strong opinions against the taming and captivity of the dolphins.

The website [|World's Saddest Dolphins] was set up by ACRES in a bid to raise awareness and to appeal for public support against the containment of dolphins within RWS' facilities. SPCA has also called for the release of remaining 24 bottlenose dolphins back into the wild1], voicing their opposition on the premise that the capturing of wild dolphins for the "//purpose of forcing them to adapt to an unnatural lifestyle//" should not be accepted.

//Looking at this issue from another perspective // would allow people to see the possible benefits that arose from the dolphins being held and exhibited to the public in RWS.

This controversy has brought about an increase in awareness and heightened the profile of the dolphins, allowing for people from different walks of life, with different prior knowledge on marine conservation, to //understand greater and feel more// for the difficulties arising in animal conservation. Without which, aquarium goers might not even be aware that dolphins, cetaceans and other marine animals in the world are facing conservation challenges.

This increase in awareness is especially important, towards triggering movements towards animal conservation and protection.

One should always keep in mind that in the grander scheme of things, sometimes sacrifices are required to be made to achieve a greater goal - stronger conservation awareness and efforts.

//"If it is an animal welfare argument, then there is no difference between keeping dolphins and forcing horses to race, or caging singing birds, or keeping fish in aquarium tanks, small or large. If it is a conservation argument, the big picture is that other human activities such as fishing and habitat quality decline do greater damage and kill much more dolphins, and they should be addressed through more effective conservation efforts." // -Prof Chou Loke Ming, director of the Bachelor of Environmental Studies programme at the National University of Singapore 2] <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; text-align: justify;">To read more about conservation challenges in other parts of the world, please click here.

=**<span style="color: #ad1c4b; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 28px; line-height: 1.5;">1. How do they look like? **= toc <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">//Tursiops aduncus//, the Indo-Pacific Bottlenose dolphin has a...
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 120%; line-height: 1.5;">maximum weight of 230kg
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 120%; line-height: 1.5;">body length of between 175 and 400cm
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">body size shorter and lighter for matured females than matured male <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; vertical-align: super;">3]4]5]
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">countershaded fusiform body for both male and female through having a dark gray back, and a light gray belly scattered with dark gray spots <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; vertical-align: super;">6]
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">lifespan of 19 years for males and 26 years for females on average
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">known oldest wild-living dolphin to be a 39 year old male and a 49 year old female <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 1.5; vertical-align: super;">5]6]9]

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 0px; overflow: hidden; vertical-align: super;"> A simple diagram on the adult Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphin's external body parts. Photo is author's own. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Back to top

=<span style="color: #ad1c4b; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 28px;">2. Where are they found? =

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">The Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphin is only found in the warm coastal waters of the Indo-Pacific and Indian Ocean, including northern Australia <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; vertical-align: super;">10]11]. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Although the Common Bottlenose Dolphin (//Tursiops Truncatus//) is also seen in Singapore's waters, t <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.5;">he Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphin <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;"> is the species of dolphin most predominantly sighted in Singapore waters <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; vertical-align: super;">12]13] <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">For a regular update on dolphin sightings in Singapore's waters, you could visit [|this map] created by [|SWiMMS]. It records the time and species of marine mammal sighted.

Distribution of T. aduncus (highlighted in green), reproduced from Culik 2004, Wells & Scott, 2002. Source: [|TMSI] Permission for reproduction pending by Tropical Marine Science Institute (TMSI). <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Australia; Bahrain; Bangladesh; Brunei Darussalam; Cambodia; China; Comoros; Egypt; Eritrea; India; Indonesia; Iran, Islamic Republic of; Japan; Kenya; Madagascar; Malaysia; Mayotte; Mozambique; Myanmar; Oman; Pakistan; Papua New Guinea; Philippines; Saudi Arabia; Singapore; Solomon Islands; Somalia; South Africa; Sri Lanka; Taiwan, Province of China; Tanzania, United Republic of; Thailand; Timor-Leste; United Arab Emirates; Yemen
 * **<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Countries in which the Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphin are sighted **<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; vertical-align: super;">14] || **<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Native range: **

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Vietnam || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: right;">Back to top
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Possibly extinct: **

=<span style="color: #ad1c4b; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 28px;">3. How do they behave? =

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Friendly and sociable interactions
<span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">The Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins are a group of social animals that forms complex and dynamic relationships with other individuals, which changes frequently<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; vertical-align: super;">4]. <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;"> <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">These groups usually consist of 2–15 dolphins, and the group members changes accordingly to when predation risk and availability of prey changes<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; vertical-align: super;">15]. They are also sometimes found in groups with other dolphin species<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; vertical-align: super;">11]. <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;"> The Indo-pacific Bottlenose Dolphin face high levels of predation by sharks, especially that from the Tiger shark and Great white sharks in Australia and South Africa. Dolphins are often seen to bear scars of such attacks. <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;"> <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;"><span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">Being hunted by at least ten species of sharks could have resulted in the development of social behaviour that is exhibited by the bottlenose dolphins – travelling in groups results in lower individual vulnerability towards predators<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; vertical-align: super;">4]16]17]. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Back to top

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">How do they communicate with each other?
<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">The Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin’s brain is argued to be so large and complex that it enables each dolphin individual to have highly developed intellect and learning skills. Despite a less developed sense of sight, the dolphins can comm <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 120%; line-height: 1.5;">unicate very effectively via echolocation. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 120%; line-height: 1.5;">Echolocation occurs when the dolphins generate clicks of different ultrasonic frequencies and then interpret returning signals to obtain a mental picture of the environment to detect their prey and predators (see video below). Each individuals also produces a unique whistle that enables other dolphins to identify them individually. Besides echolation, <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.5;">The Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 120%; line-height: 1.5;">also communicates via tactile signals e.g. rubbing of flippers against the flippers or body of other dolphins <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 1.5; vertical-align: super;">5]8]18]19] <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 120%; line-height: 1.5;">. media type="youtube" key="ZoNDW0zSRNo" width="689" height="332" align="center" [|Echolocation of Dolphins from "Ultimate Guide - Secrets of Dolphin Sonar," by Animal Planet Youtube Channel, 13 Sept 2010] [|[20]] [|.] <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: right;">Back to top

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">What do they feed on?
<span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;"><span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">The Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin have a diet consisting mainly of bony fish and to a lesser extent, cephalopods. While these dolphins can feed on a wide range of fish species, they mainly feed on just a few selected species such as Blacktail Snapper ( // Lutjanus fulvus // ), Yellowtail Emperor ( // Lethrinus crocineus // ) and Slender Conger ( // Uroconger lepturus // ) 21]. <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;"> <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">The Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins have between 20 to 28 conical and homodont teeth with a diameter of approximately 1cm <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; vertical-align: super;">5]7]8] <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">. The teeth of the dolphins are not used for chewing or tearing of prey but for capturing and seizing, hence there isn’t a need for molars or for heterodont dentition <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; vertical-align: super;">22] <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">.



<span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">These social creatures have a cooperative hunting and foraging behaviour characterized by several shallow dives per minute. The dolphins’ hunting methods in shallow waters includes chasing small fish up onto the shore and trapping them within a circle of mud in the water (see video below) and also “knocking” the fish into the sand with their tail flukes. Hunting occurs most often in the morning and afternoon 5]6]19]21]. <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: center;"> media type="youtube" key="bzfqPQm-ThU" width="672" height="377" align="center" [|"Dolphins trick fish with mud "nets" - One Life" by BBC Earth Youtube Channel, 8 Feb 2013.] 49] <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: right;">Back to top

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">How do they re**produce?**
<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Female Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphins reaches reproductive maturity between 7 and 12 years of age whereas that of males is between 9 and 13 years old. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;"> Reproductive maturity is shown to the males through visible development of freckles on the ventral side of the body. The gestation period is approximately 12 months.
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Reproductive Maturity **

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">It is interesting to know that female reproductive success is higher in shallow waters as it is easier to detect predators and reduces overall predation by sharks <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; vertical-align: super;">4]5]6]23] <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">The Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphin ex <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">hibits a rare trait that is found by few mammal species - the cooperation of males to allow for easier mating with females. Males form alliances with up to three other potentially unrelated males, and they herd females for mating (see video below). This action is sometimes called “mate guarding.” <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.5;">Both male and female Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphins tend to mate with more than one partner <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; vertical-align: super;">17]24]. media type="youtube" key="1mdoFKNbqKE" width="604" height="339" align="left" [|Mate guarding in "World's Weirdest - Promiscuous Dolphins" by NatGeoWild Youtube Channel, 11 Apr 2012.] 50]
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">Strategies for reproductive Success **

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 20px;">What do we know about their young?
<span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">T he Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphin at birth has a length of between 0.8 and 1.1m, weighing between 9 and 21 kg. The highest rates of birth occur between October and December. The lactation period last for approximately 18 months in captivity and 32 months in the wild 3]4]5]6]19].

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;"> <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 120%; text-align: justify;"> <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: right;">Back to top
 * ~ <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 17px;">Comparison between external reproductive structure <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; vertical-align: super;">25] ||
 * **<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">Male ** || **<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">Female ** ||
 * * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.5;">Penis of male is enclosed within the foreskin that appears externally as a slit
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.5;">Genital slit is much further apart with the anal opening as compared to females || * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.5;">Genital slit of the female appears to be continuous with anal opening
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.5;">Two additional mammary slits are found on either side of genital slit where the nipples are found ||

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 20px;">How do they rest in the ocean?
<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">As the Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphins are mammals, it is required for them to surface to breathe in oxygen from the air even when they sleep. It was therefore hypothesized by Lilly <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; vertical-align: super;">26] <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;"> that by resting only half their brain at any one time and keeping one eye open, the dolphins could <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.5;">still consciously surface to breathe even during sleep 32] <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.5;">. The singular open eye helps to <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">scan the environment for predators. It was also postuated by Goley <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; vertical-align: super;">27] <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;"> that the opening of one eye could also be to maintain visual contact with other pod members. Electrophysiological studies <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; vertical-align: super;">28]29]30] <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;"> have shown that dolphins indeed have one eye open during their sleep. Further studies have affirmed the sentinel duty of the open eye of the dolphin <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; vertical-align: super;">31] <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">. <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: right;">Back to top

=<span style="color: #ad1c4b; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 28px;">4. Taxonomy = <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">The Indo-Pacific Bottlenose belongs to the taxon of Mammalia, meaning that they are similar to all other mammals, having the need to breathe atmospheric oxygen through their lungs. Being under the suborder Odontoceti refers to the Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphin as a toothed whale, just like killer whales and sperm whales. Dolphins are the smallest form of toothed whales.
 * ~ ==<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 22px;">Taxonavigation == ||~  ||~   ||~   ||~   ||~   ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">Class: Mammalia ||  ||   ||   ||   ||   ||
 * || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">Order: Cetacea ||  ||   ||   ||   ||
 * ||  || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">Suborder: Odontoceti ||   ||   ||   ||
 * ||  ||   || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">Family: Delphinidae ||   ||   ||
 * ||  ||   ||   || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">Genus: Tursiops ||   ||
 * ||  ||   ||   ||   || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">Species: Aduncus ||

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: right;">Back to top
 * ==<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 22px;">Synonyms <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 10px; vertical-align: super;">33] == ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">//Delphinus abusalam// Ruppell 1842, //Delphinus hamatus// Wiegmann 1841, //Delphinus perniger// Blyth 1848, //Sotalia gadumu// Owen 1866, //Sotalia perniger// Trouessart 1898, //Tursio abusalam// Ruppell 1842, //Tursiops abusalam// Ruppell 1842, //Tursiops catalania// Gray 1862, //Tursiops fergusoni// Lydekker 1903, //Tursiops nuuanu// Andrews 1911 ||

**<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 22px;">Original Specimen **
<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">This species was originally designated the scientific name //Delphinus aduncus// <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; vertical-align: super;">34] <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">, of which no diagnostic details to distinguish it from the sympatric //Tursiops truncatus// was given. It was initially thought that the description was based on describing a stranded animal and thus no holotype specimen was kept and designated by Ehrenburg <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; vertical-align: super;">35] <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">. However, the //<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.5;">Tursiops //<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.5;"> skull was subsequently discovered deposited in the Berlin Museum, mistakenly described as //Delphinus rostratus.// The skull was then later reconsi dered and identified as the missing holotype specimen of //Tursiops aduncus// collected from the Indian Ocean due to its antiquity in 1978. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;"> The holotype skull (ZMB66400) is currently stored in the //Zoologisches// //Museum Berlin// (ZMB), //<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.5;">Humboldt Universität zu Berlin Museum für Naturkunde //<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 1.5; vertical-align: super;">36] <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.5;">.

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 22px;">How do you tell between the two species found in Singapore's waters?
<span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">Both Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphin (//Tursiops Aduncus)// and Common Bottlenose Dolphin ( //Tursiops Truncatus// ) are found in Singapore waters. In Southeast Asia, both species are sympatric and are often even found in mixed schools <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 1.5; vertical-align: super;">11]. In fact, in Singapore, other dolphins and marine mammals has been sighted, more about them can be discovered [|here]. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: right;">Back to top
 * ~ <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">Comparison of several physical differences between Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphin and Common Bottlenose Dolphin <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; vertical-align: super;">3]6]7]38] ||
 * || [[image:Screen Shot 2014-11-20 at 4.18.59 pm.png width="400" height="254" caption="Adapted from Wang et al., 2000[11]"]] || [[image:Screen Shot 2014-11-20 at 4.19.24 pm.png width="400" height="262" caption="Adapted from Wang et al., 2000[11]"]] ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">Species || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphin (//Tursiops aduncus//) || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">Common Bottlenose Dolphin (//Tursiops truncatus//) ||
 * Freckling || * Found on the ventral side of a mature adult
 * Freckling increases with age || * Absence of freckling on both mature and juveniles ||
 * Body Size || * Smaller body || * Larger body ||
 * Head and Melon || * Smaller head and melon || * Larger head and melon ||
 * Rostrum || * Longer, slender and tapered more abruptly towards the end of the rostrum || * Shorter and wider rostrum that tapers off minimally towards the end of the rostrum ||
 * Flippers || * Larger flippers || * Smaller flippers ||
 * Dorsal Fin || * Dorsal fins have a broader base at the connection point to the body || * Dorsal fins have a narrower base at the connection point to the body ||

**<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 22px;">Taxonomic Dispute **
<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">The taxonomic status of the Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphin (//Tursiops aduncus)// was uncertain until 2000 when studies demonstrated that //Tursiops aduncus// and //Tursiops truncatus// was reproductively isolated. South African bottlenose dolphins were previously named as either //Tursiops aduncus// or //Tursiops truncatus// on the basis of differences in size and morphological characters <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; vertical-align: super;">39] <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">Lack of hybridization evidences highlights the reproductive isolation between //Tursiops aduncus// and //Tursiops truncatus.// There is a lack of reported hybridization between the two forms of //Tursiops// despite the great prevalence of hybridization reports between species of dolphins and other cetaceans <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; vertical-align: super;">40] <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">In captivity, hybrids with Risso's dolphin //Grampus griseus//, short-finned pilot whale //Globicephala macrorhynchus//, rough-toothed dolphin //Steno bredanensis// and the false killer whale //Pseudorca crassidens// were produced <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; vertical-align: super;">41] <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">. In the wild, three hybrids of //Tursiops truncatus// and //G. griseus// were reported by Fraser <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; vertical-align: super;">42] <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">. It is therefore interesting to note that only a single hybrid was reported between //Tursiops aduncus// and //Tursiops truncatus//. Institutions such as Ocean Park, Hong Kong and Ocean world Taipei, Taiwan has kept both species of //Tursiops// within the same containing area for many years without occurrences of hybridization <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; vertical-align: super;">41] <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">. The maintenance of reproductive isolation between the two sympatric populations of //Tursiops// satisfies the criterion of the Biological Species Concept <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; vertical-align: super;">43] <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;"> to be two distinct species. <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: center;">A hybrid of the Bottlenose Dolphin and Risso's Dolphin. <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 1.5;">Picture taken by Ryuji Murata. Source: [|Muraryuphoto]Photo Reproduction Permission granted by owner. No Copyrights.

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">Recent analyses carried out on the osteology and the external morphology of sympatric populations //Tursiops aduncus// and //Tursiops truncatu////s// in Chinese waters showed the two //Tursiops// to be separate species <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; vertical-align: super;">40] <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;"> A study analyzing mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control region sequences of both species showed a clear division of two lineages <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; vertical-align: super;">40]45] <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">, supporting that //Tursiops adun////cus// and //Tursiops truncatus// are separate species. In fact, mtDNA control region sequences of //Tursiops truncatus// from the China sea are more closely related to that of //Tursiops truncatus// from the Atlantic Ocean than that of sympatric //T. aduncus// <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; vertical-align: super;">44] <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">. <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">In another study conducted that generated the mitogenome sequences, with at least 1 complete genome sequenced for each stated species in the below figure showed a bootstrap value of 1 on the Bayesian phylogenetic tree, indicating that //Tursiops aduncus// and //<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">Tursiops truncatus //are clearly separate species<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; vertical-align: super;">51].

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=<span style="color: #ad1c4b; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 28px;">5. Conservation challenges =

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 1.5;">What are the human impacts on the dolphins?
<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Dolphins are often hunted and captured for food <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; vertical-align: super;">4]16] <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;"> despite ban of direct harvesting of the dolphins for human consumption in 1990. They are also often incidentally being part of by catches, getting caught <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;"> particularly in purse seine and gillnet fisheries 17]. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 120%; line-height: 1.5;">As such, thousands of dolphins have been taken each year in Taiwan, Australia, South Africa. "A Hector's dolphin calf trapped and killed in gillnet." Photo by Stephen Dawson. Source: [|World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)]. Photo reproduction permission granted under [|Creative Common Licence] <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 120%; text-align: left;">Live captures of Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphins also occur due to their global popularity particularly in Taiwan, Japan, Indonesia <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: left; vertical-align: super;">46] <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 120%; line-height: 1.5; text-align: left;">and this has resulted in a rapidly expanding eco-tourism industry. Dolphins performing stunts at Minami Chita Beachland. Picture taken by Ryuji Murata. Source: [|Muraryuphoto]Photo Reproduction Permission granted by owner. No Copyrights.

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">Increased contact with humans (performances, provisional feeding of animals) have also brought about changes in the behaviour and distribution of the dolphins <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; vertical-align: super;">47] <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Furthermore, the preference of the Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphins for shallow coastal waters brings the dolphins closer to <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 120%; line-height: 1.5;">coastal pollution brought about by surface runoff and sedimentation, reduced prey populations as a result of overfishing, bioaccumulation of harmful chemicals along the marine food chain, disturbance by commercial and recreational vessel traffic and also increased noise pollution that affects their echolocation and thus hunting abilities 48] <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 1.5;">.

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 17px;">What can you do to protect these animals?
<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: right;">Back to top
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">Avoid consumin g meats of marine mammals such as whales and dolphins
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">Discover how waste is treated and released into the wild in your country
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">Avoid patronising establishments with uncertified ways of taking care of their animals within captivity
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">Be more aware of laws that governs the trade of endangered animals: [|CITES] (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora)
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">Learn more about the conservation status of animals around the world from [|IUCN] (International Union for Conservation of Nature)

=<span style="color: #ad1c4b; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 28px;">6. Glossary = <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Taxa (Plural) || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">A grouping of organisms, by taxonomists, to form a unit. Commonly known taxa are Kingdom, Phylum, Species etc. ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Biological Species Concept || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">A concept that defines species as groups of organisms that can interbreed in nature, successfully having several reproductive generations. ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Cephalopod || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">A group of marine organisms with a prominent head and a set of arms or tentacles. Commonly know cephalopods are squids, octopuses, nautiluses etc. ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Cetacean || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Consists of a group of marine mammals containing whales, porpoises and dolphins. ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Countershade || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">A form of camouflage whereby the colouration pattern of the animal is darker at the top and lighter at the underside of the body. Commonly seen in marine animals such as sharks, dolphins, rays etc. ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Electrophysiological || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">The study of electrical properties of cells and tissues within the body ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Foraging || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Searching for food sources in the wild ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Fusiform || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">A common body shape, characterized by the tapering at both the head and the tail, for many aquatic animals. ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Gestation || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">The time period where the foetus is held within the mother's body between conception and birth ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Heterodont dentition || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Having different forms of teeth e.g. molar, canines, incisors, premolars ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Holotype/type specimen || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">The original specimen in which a description of a new species is made from ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Homodont dentition || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">All teeth having the same shape ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Hybridisation || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">The process where two different species or breeds produce an offspring. The resulting offspring is known as a hybrid. ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Lactation || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">The secretion of milk from the mammary glands of a mother to feed her young. ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Lifespan || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Expected length of life ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Lineages || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">An evolutionary understanding and portrayal of a line of descent, with each species as a result of speciation from the direct ancestral species ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Mammal || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">A group of warm blooded animals distinguished by the presence of hair, mammary glands and breathing through lungs. ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Mitogenome || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">The DNA located in the mitochondria. ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Morphological || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Morphology is the study of the form and structure of organisms, both internal and external. ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Native range || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">The natural regions and area that the species is found in, without human intervention. ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Osteology || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">The scientific study of bones ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Reproductive Isolation || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">The inability for different species to breed and produce offsprings that are virile. ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Scientific name || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">A formal naming system of living organisms that has two parts. Both words are in Latin. The first part refers to the genus and second part the species e.g. //Homo sapiens// Genus: //Homo//. Species: //sapiens// ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Sympatric || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Two species are considered sympatric if they exist within the same geographical range and thus encounters each other. ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Synonym || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">A scientific name that has been previously used to name a specific taxon. ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Tactile || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">The sense of touch ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Taxon (Singular)
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Ultrasonic frequency || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">A frequency of sound that exceeds the upper limit of the human audible range. ||
 * <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Ventral || <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">The underside of the body. ||

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=<span style="color: #ad1c4b; font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 28px;">7. Literature and References =

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">[1] "SPCA Calls for release of Resorts World Sentosa dolphins after fourth death", by The Straits Times. URL: http://www.spca.org.sg/pdf/RWSDolphin2014/Asiareport06042014.pdf (accessed on 20 Nov 2014)

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">[2] "Conservationists find Marine Life Park partnership with Conservation International puzzling", by Jeanette Tan. URL: http://www.saddestdolphins.com/latestnews/2014/Jan%202014%20Conservationists%20find%20Marine%20Life%20Park%20partnership%20with%20Conservation%20International%20puzzling.pdf (accessed on 20 Nov 2014)

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">[3] Kogi, K., T. Hishii, A. Imamura, T. Iwatani & K. Dudzinski, 2004. Demographic parameters of indo-pacific bottlenose dolphins (//Tursiops aduncus//) around Mikura Island, Japan. //Marine Mammal Science//, 20(3): 510–526.

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">[4] Mann, J., R. C. Connor, L. M. Barre & M. R. Heithaus, 2000. Female reproductive success in bottlenose dolphins (//Tursiops// sp.): life history, habitat, provisioning, and group-size effects. //Behavioral Ecology//, 11(2): 210–219.

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">[5] Nowak, R., 2003. Walker's Marine Mammals of the World. Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press.

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">[6] Shirihai, H. & B. Jarrett, 2006. Whales, Dolphins, and Other Marine Mammals of the World. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">[7] Kurihara, N. & S. Oda, 2007. Cranial variation in bottlenose dolphins //Tursiops// spp. from the Indian and western Pacific Oceans: additional evidence for two species. //Acta Theriologica//, 52(4): 403–418.

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">[8] Martin, R., R. Pine & A. DeBlase, 2001. A Manual of Mammalogy with Keys to Families of the World. Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press, Inc.

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">[9] Klinowska, M. & J. Cook, 1991. Dolphins, Porpoises and Whales of the World: The IUCN Red Data Book. Cambridge, England: IUCN.

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">[10] Rice, D. W., 1998. Marine mammals of the world: Systematics and distribution. Special Publication No. 4. The Society for Marine Mammalogy, Lawrence, KS.

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">[11] Wang, J. Y., L. S. Chou, & B. N. White, 2000. Differences in the external morphology of two sympatric species of bottlenose dolphins (genus //Tursiops//) in the waters of China. //Journal of Mammalogy//, 81(4): 1157–1165.

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">[12] “Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin (//Tursiops aduncus//)” by Marine Mammal Research Laboratory. Singapore Wild Marine Mammal Survey, 28 July 2011. URL: [] (accessed 7th Sept 2014)

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">[13] Wells, R. S. & M. D. Scott, 2002. Bottlenose dolphins. In: Perrin W.F., B. Würsig, & J.G.M. Thewissen, eds. Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals. San Diego: Academic Press.

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">[14] "//Tursiops aduncus//", by The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. URL: http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/41714/0 (accessed on 20 Nov 2014)

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">[15] Mann, J. & H. Barnett, 1999. Lethal tiger shark (//Galeocerdo cuvier//) attack on bottlenose dolphin (//Tursiops// sp.) calf: Defense and reactions by the mother. //Marine Mammal Science//, 15(2): 568–575.

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">[16] Heithaus, M.R., 2001. Predator-prey and competitive interactions between sharks (order Selachii) and dolphins (soborder Odontoceti): a review. //Journal of Zoology//, 253(1): 53–68.

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">[17] Reynolds, J., R. Wells & S. Eide, 2000. The Bottlenose Dolphin: Biology and Conservation. Florida: University Press of Florida.

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">[18] Sakai, M., T. Hishii, S. Takeda & S. Kohshima, 2006. Flipper rubbing behaviors in wild bottlenose dolphins (//Tursiops aduncus//). //Marine Mammal Science//, 22(4): 966–978.

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">[19] Vaughan, T., J. Ryan & N. Czaplewski, 2011. Mammalogy. Boston, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning.

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">[20] “Ultimate Guide - Secrets of Dolphin Sonar," by Animal Planet Youtube Channel, 13 Sept 2010. URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZoNDW0zSRNo (accessed on 25 Oct 2014)

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">[21] Amir, O. A., P. Berggren, G. M. S. Ndaro & N. S. Jiddawi, 2005. Feeding ecology of the Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin (//Tursiops aduncus//) incidentally caught in the gillnets fisheries off Zanzibar, Tanzania. Estuarine. //Coastal and Shelf Science//, 63(3): 429–437.

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">[22] Rauch, A., 2013. Dolphin. London: Reaktion books.

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">[23] Krzyszczyk, E. & J. Mann, 2012. Why become speckled? Ontogeny and function of speckling in Shark Bay bottlenose dolphins (//Tursiops// spp.). //Marine Mammal Science//, 28(2): 295–307.

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">[24] Möller, L., L. Beheregaray, R. Harcourt & M. Krützen, 2001. Alliance membership and kinship in wild male bottlenose dolphins (//Tursiops aduncus//) of southeastern Australia. //Proceedings of the Royal Society of Biological Sciences//, 268: 1941–1947.

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">[25]"Sex and reproduction in the Bottlenose Dolphin" by DolphinWeb. URL: https://www.tangalooma.com/dolphinweb/schoolprojects/theme4.asp (accessed on 20 Nov 2014)

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">[26] Lilly, J. C., 1964. Animals in aquatic environments: adaptations of mammals to the ocean. In: Dill, D.B. (Ed.), Handbook of Physiology—Environment. American Physiology Society, Washington, DC, pp. 741–747.

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">[27] Goley, P. D., 1999. Behavioral aspects of sleep in pacific white-sided dolphins (//Lagenorhynchus obliquidens//, Gill 1865). //Marine Mammal Science//, 15: 1054–1064.

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">[28] Mukhametov, L. M. & A. Y. Supin, 1975. An EEG study of different behavioural states in free moving dolphin (//Tursiops truncatus//). //<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Zhurnal vyssh. Nerv. Deyat. I. P. Pavlovas //<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 1.5;">, 25: 396–401

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">[29] Mukhametov, L. M., A. Y. Supin & I. G. Polyakova, 1977. Interhemispheric asymmetry of the electroencephalographic sleep pattern in dolphins. //Brain Research//, 134(3): 581–584.

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<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">[31] Mukhametov, L. M., O. I. Lyamin, 1997. The Black Sea bottlenose dolphin: the conditions of rest and activity. In: Sokolov, V.E., Romanenko, E.V. (Eds.), The Black Sea Bottlenose Dolphin. Nauka, Moscow, pp. 650–668.

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