Daphnis+nerii

//**Daphnis nerii **// Oleander Hawkmoth

Moths never looked this good... toc = = =**Synonyms: **= Army Green Hawkmoth
 * Common Name **

**Scientific Name ** //Sphinx nerii // //Deilephila nerii //(erronous) //Histriosphinx nerii //

=**Etymology: **=  “Oleander” in the “Oleander Hawkmoth” refers to the host plant it feeds on in the larval stage, //Nerium oleander// (family Apocynaceae) [1]. It is also sometimes referred to as the Army Green Hawkmoth for its foliage-like colours and patterns.
 * Common Name **

 **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Scientific Name ** <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> //<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Daphnis //<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">: Likely a reference to Daphnis, son of Hermes and a Nymphe in Greek mythology. He was said to be good at playing the pipes and was exceedingly beautiful [2].

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> This moth was first described by Linnaeus, 1758, in the first volume of Systema Naturae as //Sphinx nerii.// <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> //<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 1.5;">Histriosphinx // Varis, 1976, //Notul. ent.// **56**: 127. Transferred to //Daphnis//:Hübner, (1819) //Verz. Bekannt. Schmett//.: 134 <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> //<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Deiliphila //<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Zhu & Wang, 1997, //Fauna Sinica// Insecta **11**: 290 (key), 292. [3]

=**<span style="color: #215868; font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 17pt; line-height: 1.5;">Biology: **=

Ø **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 1.5;">Diet **
<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Despite its common name, the larvae of //D. nerii// also feed on non-oleander plants of the same family. Other possible host plants include up to 32 species from Rubiaceae and Apocynaceae [4].

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 1.5;">Fig. 1. **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 1.5;"> //Nerium oleander//

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">List of other host plants **[4]**

 * **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Anacardiaceae **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">(cashew): //Mangifera// (related to mango)
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Apocynaceae **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> (Dogbane; mainly tropical)://Vinca// (periwinkle), //Vitis// (grapevines), //Asclepias// (milkweed), //Trachelospermum// (woody vines), //Amsonia// (bluestars), //Carissa// (related to conkerberry), //Tabernaemontana// (milkwood), //Rhazya//, //Adenium// (common bonsai plant), //Catharanthus// (periwinkle), //Thevetia// (oleander)
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Convolvulaceae **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">(morning glory): //Ipomoea// (morning glory)
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Oleaceae **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> (related to Olive plants): //Jasminum// (jasmine), //Ligustrum ovalifolium// (privet)
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Rubiaceae **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> (related to Coffee plants): //Gardenia// (gardenias)

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Adults are non-specific and will nectar from a variety of flowers. Specimens in captivity will also drink sucrose solution.

Ø **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 1.5;">Life history and behaviour **
<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">As with all Lepidopterans, //D. nerii// is holometabolous and undergoes a four stage lifecycle in which each stage shows a significantly different morphology.

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Fig. 2. **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> Life stages of //D. nerii.//

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> As main function of the larval stage is to obtain as much nutrient as possible before metamorphosis into an adult, and the main food source of the larvae is sessile, they are relatively immobile and slow-moving. Hence, much of their defence comes from the toxin in the sap of //N. oleander// which they feed on [5].

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> media type="custom" key="24411388" <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 1.5;">Video 1 **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 1.5;">. Feeding behaviour of //D. nerii// caterpillar. Only the head and rear end make significant movement.

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> When provoked, the caterpillar first straightens itself out to resemble and oleander leaf. If the threat continues, it curls its upper segments to display the prominent eye-spots on the third thoracic segment [1].

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Fig. 3. **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> Display of eye-spots in green phase of last instar (left) (photograph by Pearlynn Sim) and in the brown phase (right) (photograph by Sabrina Tang).

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> While the larvae of //D. nerii// are able to pupate in almost any environment, they sometimes build a cocoon of leaves to disguise and protect themselves before they enter the vulnerable pupa stage.

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> media type="custom" key="24411464" <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 1.5;">Video 2. **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 1.5;"> Final instar larva of //D. nerii// building a cocoon out of the leaves of a //Jasminum// plant

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> One complete lifecycle from the time of hatching to egg-laying takes approximately 28 days to upwards of 30 days.

Ø **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 1.5;">Reproduction **
<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">//Daphnis nerii// is only competent to reproduce after the final moult. After eclosion, the female of the species extrudes the pheromone gland for up to two days after eclosion with regular pulsations as the ova mature (Leong, 2011). <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 1.5;">Pairing usually lasts not more than four hours [4].

=media type="custom" key="24411480"= <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">**<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Video 3. **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> Eclosion of //D. nerii// and mating behaviour (at 2:10). (by ririlaphoto on YouTube)

Ø **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 1.5;">Habitat **
<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">//Daphnis nerii// are found mostly where host plants are found, but adults are polyphagus and highly mobile, allowing them to live in most habitats, including vegetated areas such as forests, and urbanised areas with the ornamental plant hosts. Their habitat range excludes desert ranges, tundra and Antarctica.

=**<span style="color: #215868; font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 1.5;">Distribution: **= <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> //<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Daphnis nerii //<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> has one of the largest distributions of any Sphingid in the world [1]. Their range spans as far west as Hawaii, and as far east as Chichijima in Japan; as far north as Finland, Sweden, and Norway, and as far south as South Africa [4]. They are found throughout Europe, South Asia, Southeast Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, with less concentrated ranges in the Middle East and Far East.

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 1.5;">Map. 1. **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 1.5;">Map of the worldwide distribution of //D. nerii// (top) and of its distribution in Southeast Asia (bottom) (Beck & Kitching, 2004-2008)**.**

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> The range of //D. nerii// is suspected to have expanded with the cultivation of //N. oleander// as an ornamental plant into Southeast Asia. However, the species may be more pervasive than suggested by the domestic nature of the larval host plant as //D. nerii// is likely non-phototaxic or negatively phototaxic, and hence may be under-recorded by light trapping methods [7].

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> In Singapore, the caterpillars of the moth are spotted more often than the adults, which are not attracted to light. Hence it may be easier to observe the immature larvae that have more limited mobility and do not actively avoid lit areas. Map 2 below shows recorded locations for the larvae of //D. nerii//. These locations are, from east to west, East Coast Terrace, Terang Bulan Ave, Yishun Ave 11, Mt Imbiah, Ngee Ann Polytechnic, and College Ave West.

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> media type="custom" key="24412954" <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 10pt;">Map 2. **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 10pt;"> Recorded locations of //D. nerii// larvae in Singapore (Leong & D'Rozario, 2009), (Leong, 2011)

=**<span style="color: #215868; font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 16pt;">Diagnosis: **= <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Although adults are generally used as standard type references, it is important when identifying this species, to be familiar with each stage of the lifecycle. The descriptions taken from Pittaway (1997-2013) are as follows:

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> //<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Imago //<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> (final moult): Adults generally reach a wingspan of about 10 cm. At rest, the head tends to be tucked in <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt;">and <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 1.5;">wings are held dorso-ventrally horizontal, angled towards the posterior, but not folded over the abdomen. The adults have wings with entire edges and a pointed apex on the forewing. The wings and body are usually green, pink, white and grey on the dorsal side with a smooth, banded pattern of curved lines.

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 10pt;">Fig. 4. **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 10pt;"> //Daphnis nerii// with head tucked in and wings horizontal at rest lateral (left) and dorsal (right).

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The eyes are large and lack pendant lashes. Its labial palps are large and with smooth scales. The first tergite is relatively large, and weak, elongated spines occur in several rows on the abdomen. The M2 vein in the hindwing is before the centre of the cell. A basal comb is present on the midtarsus and two pairs of spurs occur on the hind tibiae with the pair closer to the body longer than t <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 1.5;">he distal pair. None of the tibiae have spines.

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> The antennae of the male and female are slightly different with the female’s having mildly clubbed tip, and the male havin <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 1.5;">g bristle-like (setiform) antennae.

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 1.5;">Fig. 5. **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 1.5;"> Female specimen – external anatomy (information from Pittaway, 1997-2013) (Photograph by Melissa Teo)

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 10pt;">Fig. 6. **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 10pt;"> Comparison of distinguishing external morphology of male and female specimens.

> <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 1.5;">Males have valva with fewer than ten modified friction scales on the outer surface. The sacculus has a proximal and a distal dorsal process and the aedeagus can have one or two processes on the left, but a longer one on the right. Females have a lamella postvaginalis that is narrowed suddenly and concaved at the end. The apical margin of the structure is raised and projected towards the ventral side.
 * //<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Genitalia. //

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 16px;"> **Table 1**. Diagnostic description of juvenile life stages [4]
 * //<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 19px;">Ovum //<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt;">:

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The eggs of D. nerii are almost spherical and about <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> 1.5 mm in diameter. <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 1.5;">They are generally pale green in <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 1.5;">colour with a smooth chorion that is shiny. || ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt;">//Larva// (first instar):

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The caterpillars are about 3 to 4 mm in length when they <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt;">first hatch and are bright yellow in colour. <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 1.5;">They possess <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 1.5;">a long, thin, black horn on their posterior which tapers <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 1.5;"> towards the end. || ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt;">//Larva// (second instar):

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt;">After the first moult, a pair of dorso-lateral lines start <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> to appear <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 1.5;">on the first abdominal segment to the last. <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 1.5;">The larva assumes an apple-green colour and the <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 1.5;">tail horn gains a white tip. Eye-spots start to appear <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 1.5;">on the third thoracic segment. || ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt;">//Larva// (third instar):

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 11pt;">The eye-spots become more pronounced and the <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 11pt;">white lateral <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 1.5;">lines separate into circles with a pale <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 1.5;">blue ring with a white centre,outlined by black. <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 1.5;">The spiracles become an obvious black. || ||
 * //<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 1.5;">Larva //<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 1.5;"> (fourth instar):

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 1.5;">The walking legs begin to turn pink and the tail horn <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 1.5;">becomes yellow instead of black. The lateral lines seem <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 1.5;">to consist a more dorsal band of yellow and below that a <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 1.5;"> band of pale blue with the ringed circles as in earlier instars. || ||
 * //<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Larva //<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> (final instar):

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The tapered horn becomes rounded and bulbous with <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt;">bright yellow colouration. As it comes closer to pupating, <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt;">the larva changes from green <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 1.5;">to brown as shown on the <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 1.5;"> right. The white spots of the dorso-lateral line remain as <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 1.5;">in the earlier instars || ||
 * //<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Pupa //<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt;">:

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Pupae are cream coloured when freshly moulted, but eventually darken as they harden to a light wood brown. They are generally about 60 to 75 mm in length with a prominent black line bisecting the ventral head and thorax region which demarcates the future proboscis. The caterpillars sometimes make cocoons out of leaves before pupating. || ||

=**<span style="color: #215868; font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 17pt; line-height: 1.5;">Taxonomy: **=

Ø **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Classification **
<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Animalia <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 1.5;"> Arthropoda <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Insecta <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Lepidoptera <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Sphingidae <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Macroglossinae* <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Macroglossini <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> //<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Daphnis // <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> //<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">nerii //

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> *Macroglossinae is not to be confused with the taxon of the same name under Pteropodidae (which are fruit bats).

Ø **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">Phylogeny **
<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Kawahara et. al. (2009) have constructed a phylogenetic framework for Sphingidae by way of a large scale molecular analysis of hawkmoth phylogeny based on 131 species as morphology has been unable to confidently determine relationships. Five protein-coding nuclear genes were analysed and both maximum likelihood and maximum parsimony analyses were used to construct the phylogeny within the Sphingid taxon.

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Previous analyses have shown strong support for the monophyly of Sphingidae, and the placement of this taxon in Bombycoidea, but not for the clades within. [8] Hence, the following phylogenetic tree was produced to improve the resolution within the clade.

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Fig 7 **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">. Phylogenetic tree of maximum parsimony (including //D. nerii// marked out in red) [8]

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">This particular phylogenetic tree was constructed using 2929 bp of //CAD//, 1283 bp of //DDC//, 1228 bp of //EF-1// //<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 1.5;">α //<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">,951 bp of //period//, and 403 bp of //wingless//. Although the focus of the study was on the model of maximum likelihood, maximum parsimony trees were of similar topology with strong bootstrap support each. [8] Of particular note is Macroglossinae* to which //D. nerii// belongs. This molecular analysis has strongly corroborated the previous hypothesis for the monophyly of Macroglossinae* with a bootstrap percentage of 91% under the maximum likelihood model. The maximum parsimony model did not receive as much support, but it had overall weaker support as well.

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Fig 8 **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">. Phylogenetic tree of maximum likelihood for Macroglossinae* (including //D. nerii// marked out in red) [8]

=**<span style="color: #215868; font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 1.5;">Glossary of Terms: **=

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 1.5;">Chorion **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">is the equivalent of an egg shell in insects.

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Eclosion **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">refers to the process in which a pupa emerges as an adult insect.

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Holometabolous **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> refers to insects that undergo complete metamorphosis to become mature adults and larvae are significantly different from the adults, with a different morphology and often separate food source.

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Host plant **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> refers to the only species, or one of a few related species of plant that a caterpillar will feed on if it is host specific.

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Morphology **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">refers to the form and structure of an organism or its features.

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Phototaxic **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> refers to the type of organisms that respond to light stimulus. Positive phototaxy means the organisms reacts to light stimulus by approaching the source, and negative phototaxy means the organisms “run away” from light sources.


 * <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 1.5;">Polyphagus **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 1.5;"> refers to the ability to feed on many kinds of food. In this case, D. nerii is able to drink from most nectar producing flowers.

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">**<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Sessile **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> organisms are permanently attached to a substrate.

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Spiracles **<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> are the external structures for gaseous exchange in insects.

=<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">**<span style="color: #215868; font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 16pt;">Links: ** =

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> CATE: []

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> <span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Sphingidae of the Western Palaearctic: __<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">tpittaway.tripod.com/sphinx __

<span style="font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> The Sphingidae of Southeast-Asia (incl. New Guinea, Bismarck and Solomon Islands): []

=**<span style="color: #215868; font-family: 'Iskoola Pota',serif; font-size: 16pt;">References: **=


 * [1] || T. M. Leong and V. D'Rozario, “Final instar larvae and metamorphosis of the Oleander Hawkmoth, Daphnis nerii (Linnaeus) in Singapore (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae: Macroglossinae),” //Nature in Singapore,// vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 297-306, 2009. ||
 * [2] || A. J. Atsma, “Daphnis,” 2000-2011. [Online]. Available: http://www.theoi.com/Heros/Daphnis.html. [Accessed 26 November 2013]. ||
 * [3] || I. J. Kitching, M. J. Scoble, C. R. Smith, S. James, R. Young and V. Blagoderov, “Daphnis nerii,” 2012. [Online]. Available: http://www.cate-sphingidae.org/taxonomy/Daphnis/nerii.html. [Accessed 26 November 2013]. ||
 * [4] || A. R. Pittaway, “Sphingidae of the Western Palaearctic,” 1997-2013. [Online]. Available: tpittaway.tripod.com/sphinx. [Accessed 9 September 2013]. ||
 * [5] || Kew Royal Botanic Gardens, “Nerium oleander (oleander),” 2013. [Online]. Available: http://www.kew.org/accessibility/index.htm. [Accessed 10 November 2013]. ||
 * [6] || T. M. Leong, “Observations of pupal eclosion and pheromone release in the Oleander Hawkmoth, Daphnis nerii (Linnaeus, 1758) (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae: Macroglossinae),” //Nature in Singapore,// vol. 4, no. 1, p. 369–375, 2011. ||
 * [7] || J. Beck and I. J. Kitching, “The Sphingidae of Southeast-Asia (incl. New Guinea, Bismarck and Solomon Islands),” 2004-2008. [Online]. Available: http://www.sphin-sea.unibas.ch/SphinSEA/species%20pages/Da_nerii.htm. [Accessed 13 November 2013]. ||
 * [8] || A. Y. Kawahara, A. A. Mignault, J. C. Regier, I. J. Kitching and C. Mitter, “Phylogeny and Biogeography of Hawkmoths (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae): Evidence from Five Nuclear Genes,” //PLoS ONE,// vol. 4, no. 5, p. e5719, 2009. ||
 * [9] || Andrews Experimental Forest Long Term Ecological Research, “Lepidoptera of the Pacific Northwest,” 2011-2013. [Online]. Available: http://andrewsforest.oregonstate.edu/pubs/pdf/pub3739/pub3739_06.pdf. [Accessed 11 November 2013]. ||
 * [10] || C. Linnaeus, Systema Naturae per Regna Tria Naturae, secundum Classus, Ordines, Genera, Species, cum Characteribus, Differentiis, Synonymis, Locis., 10 ed., vol. I, Stockholm: Laurentii Salvii (Impensis Direct), 1758, p. 490. ||
 * [11] || K. Murugan and A. George, “Feeding and nutritional influence on growth and reproduction of Daphnis nerii (Linn.) (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae),” //Journal of Insect Physiology,// vol. 38, no. 12, p. 961–967, 1992. ||