Apis+cerana+Fabricius,+1793

Oriental Honeybee //Apis cerana// Fabricius, 1793

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 * =1) Getting to know the Oriental Honeybee = ||
 * The Oriental Honeybee (//Apis cerana//) is often times also called the Eastern Honeybee, Asiatic Honeybee or Indian Honeybee 1]. Some of the known subspecies of the Oriental Honeybee are //A. cerana cerana//, //A. cerana himalaya//, //A. cerana javana//, //A. cerana indica//, //A. cerana sinensis//, //A. cerana japonica// 2].

Honeybees have been known to contribute many important resources (e.g. honey, pollen, beeswax, royal jelly) to Man for as long as we know (Figures 1A, B & C). Yet, honeybees provide another extremely important ecosystem service and benefit that most people are not even aware of, which is pollination. There is likely to be an increase in demand for beekeeping services in the future, especially when food security issues may be a potential problem. Singapore, which imports most of its food 3], can be in extreme jeopardy if global food security is threatened. As beekeeping grows in importance, the Oriental Honeybee will become an increasingly important species to Man, and it needs to be well understood to ensure good and proper beekeeping techniques and practices. The Oriental Honeybee is one of the native honeybee species of Singapore 2], which is possibly going to be the star in the advancement of local beekeeping. Apart from mastery of beekeeping techniques, beekeepers also need to know 1) the distribution and habitat, 2) how to identify the right honeybee, 3) the life cycle, 4) reproduction and 5) foraging behaviour of their honeybee. Together, let's support beekeeping of the Oriental Honeybee in Singapore! ||
 * [[image:taxo4254/3868357143_a83fecee07_z.jpg width="361" height="247" align="left" caption="Figure 1A. Honey sold at a Sunday market (Photo by Franklin)."]][[image:taxo4254/7549035922_e6b94d8d95_z.jpg width="332" height="249" align="left" caption="Figure 1B. Raw pollen granules (Photo by Bee Pollen Hub)."]][[image:taxo4254/3048487229_7104785780_z.jpg width="355" height="248" align="left" caption="Figure 1C. Beeswax candles (Photo by Veggiefrog)."]] ||
 * =2) Why are honeybees so important? = ||
 * In the wild, most flowers are pollinated by a wide variety of bees like the bumblebee, carpenter bee, sweat bee and of course, the honeybee 4]. Honeybees have proved themselves useful to not only the ecosystem, but to Man as well. Apart from providing Man with important resources, honeybees are one of the most important pollinators (Figures 2A & B) in commercial agriculture . Honeybees (//Apis// //spp.//) make one of the best and most efficient pollinators for these reasons:
 * 1) They are visitors of a wide range of plant species 5, 6].
 * 2) They have the potential to work long hours.
 * 3) They show flower constancy (i.e. tendency of a pollinator to exclusively visit a particular species or morph of flower).
 * 4) They are adapted to a wide range of different climates.
 * 5) Their social and behavioural traits allow them to gather pollen efficiently 7, 8].
 * 6) <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Their sheer abundance (a result of their social behaviour) possibly makes them a more important pollinator, even though certain flowers are more effectively pollinated by other bees (e.g. through buzz-pollination by //Bombus spp.// and //Xylocopa spp.//) 9].

__<span style="background-color: #ffff77; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%; line-height: 1.5;">So why should I care about pollinators? __ <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">We need pollinators to help in food and crop production! Pollinator populations and diversity have been globally declining 10, 11, 12, 13] and this is mainly due to: <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">The lack of pollinators in some regions of the world have forced farmers to hand-pollinate their crops, which is extremely expensive and time-consuming. Furthermore, the quality and yield of crops turn out to be poor due to poor pollination 4]. It was even estimated that the value of pollination to crop production in the United States is about USD 14.6 billion annually 14]! And globally, annual pollination services are worth USD 54 billion in agriculture 15]. Since pollination services are so important, it is no doubt that pollinators like the Oriental Honeybee is an important organism to both Man and ecosystem.
 * 1) <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%; line-height: 1.5;">habitat destruction
 * 2) <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%; line-height: 1.5;">hunting and exploitation of honey and honeybee nests
 * 3) <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%; line-height: 1.5;">forest fires
 * 4) <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%; line-height: 1.5;">climate change 9, 10, 11, 12]
 * 5) <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%; line-height: 1.5;">modern farming methods which use pesticides 11]

__<span style="background-color: #ffff77; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">So how is the Oriental Honeybee as a pollinator? __ <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Like other honeybees in the species //Apis//, the Oriental Honeybee plays a very significant role in pollination in both natural environments and for crops. The Oriental Honeybee is highly attracted to high densities and numbers of flowers. Hence, in the wild, it makes them especially important pollinators for canopy trees in tropical forests with supra-annual flowering schedules 5, 16, 17]. This trait also makes them great pollinators for crop monocultures in agriculture 18], and it has also led to them becoming highly adapted to human-dominated landscapes, both urban and agricultural 9]. This opens up the possibility of using Oriental honeybees in beekeeping in a highly populated, urban city like Singapore. Oriental Honeybees are also known to be important pollinators of crops like spices, oilseeds, cauliflower, okra, onion and many more fruits and nuts 19]. || ||
 * =<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 140%;">3) Let's bee friends with bees—but which bee? = ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">There are several commonly known species of honeybees (//Apis spp.//), such as the Giant Honeybee (//A. dorsata//), European Honeybee (//A. mellifera//), Dwarf Honeybee (//A. florea//), and of course the Oriental Honeybee (//A. cerana//). Of these honeybees, the European and Oriental Honeybees are often used in apiculture for honey production and pollination services. This is because the Giant and Dwarf Honeybees practice open-air nesting, and cannot be kept in hives for long periods of time. On the other hand, the European and Oriental Honeybees can be kept in hives which allow manipulation by people 20]. Before embarking on a beekeeping journey, a beekeeper needs to understand what bees (Table 1) would best achieve his/her goals. The beekeeper also needs to think about the socio-economic situation, vegetation pattern and the climatic conditions of the locality, and perhaps do some cost-benefit analyses to ensure sustainable beekeeping.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 23.4px;">Table 1. Comparison of the two commonly used honeybees in apiculture 2, 4, 20].

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">In the context of Singapore, there appears to be limited demand for pollination services and also limited opportunities for beekeeping due to lack of space and possible human-wildlife conflicts. Nevertheless, some beekeeping activities have recently started in Singapore, with much success, and these activities are often done side-by-side with agriculture 21, 22]. Therefore, with the appropriate choice of honeybee, these issues can be overcome. The Oriental Honeybee appears to be more suited for beekeeping in Singapore for the following reasons:
 * 1) <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 1.5;">It is a native species.
 * 2) <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 1.5;">It is suited to urban environments.
 * 3) <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 1.5;">There is limited space in Singapore (bees have low space requirements and need low-cost management).
 * 4) <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 1.5;">It is thus applicable to urban farming and community gardens, which are becoming increasingly popular in Singapore 23, 24].
 * 5) <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 1.5;">Pollination services can extend to Singapore's recreational parks 25], which are important in maintaining Singapore's image as a Garden City.
 * 6) <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 1.5;">Singapore is in greater need of pollination services (in preparation of food security issues in the future) than commercial honey production.
 * 7) <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 1.5;">It is a pollinator of common crops of community gardens in Singapore, such as okra, cucumber, chilli, papaya, long bean, pumpkin and watermelon 26].

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">Many beekeepers fear using Oriental Honeybees due to their higher tendency to abscond/migrate 20], thus losing their precious bees. However, Oriental Honeybees generally migrate if the environmental conditions are poor or if there is lack of foraging opportunities or if they face high predation pressure 19, 20]. Therefore, to counter this problem, it is important to ensure the bees are well taken care of and that there are enough flowers for them to forage from.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">The incredibly docile nature of the Oriental Honeybees is also very desirable. Take a look at this interesting account (of the Oriental Honeybee) by a apiculturalist in Japan who is highly experienced in dealing with the Oriental Honeybee 27]:

<span style="background-color: #fff858; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">"The bees make friends with humans and they never sting their friends: I never wear a bee veil even when I harvest honey. A smoker? No, I never use one."

<span style="background-color: #fff858; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">"Apis cerana has a language that you can learn if you live with them for a time. I now understand around 20 expressions… If you hear a hum, the bees are saying something to you and their sisters. You will notice that after they become your friend, they are silent as they pass you as they go out and come back into the hive. When Apis cerana are attacked by Vespa mandarina, they come to you and beg for your help. They hum and alight on your shoulder." ||
 * =<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 140%;">4) Distribution and habitats = ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Distribution and habitats are linked to environmental and climatic factors, which have influence on the bees. It is thus important to know the desired environmental conditions and habitat requirements of the Oriental Honeybee to ensure proper bee care.

__<span style="background-color: #ffff77; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Distribution __ <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Oriental Honeybees are found throughout the tropical, sub-tropical and temperate zones of Asia, and mostly encountered around South and Southeast Asia (e.g. India, Malaysia, Singapore, Nepal, Bangladesh, Indonesia, The Philippines, Sri Lanka) (Figure 3). They can also be found at some parts of Far East Asia (e.g. China, Japan, Korea) (Figure 3) and fairly recently, in Oceania (e.g. Australia and Papua New Guinea) as well 2, 20].



__<span style="background-color: #ffff77; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Habitat (Natural) __ <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Due to their adaptability to a wide range of climates, Oriental Honeybees have been found to persist in tropical rainforests, tropical savannahs, mid-latitude grasslands, moist deciduous forests and even taigas 28].

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">In the wild, the Oriental Honeybee constructs multiple-comb nests in dark enclosures such as caves, rock cavities and hollow tree trunks (Figure 4A). The nesting site is typically close to the ground, but may be located up to 5 m above ground. There are several combs of an Oriental Honeybee colony that are built parallel to each other, and a uniform distance known as the "bee space" is respected between them. Its brood comb consists of brood cells of two sizes: smaller for the worker brood and larger for the drone brood (Figure 4B). The queen cells are built on the lower edge of the comb. As in the other //Apis// species, honey is stored in the upper part of the combs, but also in the outer combs, adjacent to the hive walls 20].

__<span style="background-color: #ffff77; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">Habitat (Artificial) __ <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">The Oriental Honeybees' habit of nesting in the dark enables people to farm and keep them in specially constructed vessels. For thousands of years, Oriental Honeybees have been kept in different kinds of hives, i.e. clay pots, logs, boxes, wall openings, etc. The history of beekeeping in tropical Asia has made the Oriental Honeybee more docile and less likely to attack people, compared to the Dwarf and Giant Honeybees. In beekeeping or an artificial environment, Oriental Honeybees may be kept in log hives, box hives or movable-frame hives 20]. The movable-frame hive (Figure 4C) is more advanced and modern and allows for the beekeeper to manipulate the colony to carry out the following activities: ||
 * 1) <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%; line-height: 1.5;">brood-nest adjustment
 * 2) <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%; line-height: 1.5;">inspection for disease and pest
 * 3) <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%; line-height: 1.5;">verifying food-store levels
 * 4) <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%; line-height: 1.5;">queen-rearing
 * 5) <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%; line-height: 1.5;">relatively easy harvest of honeycomb and honey ||
 * [[image:taxo4254/6101665255_10bb4f0f61_z.jpg width="379" height="501" align="left" caption="Figure 4A. Oriental Honeybee nest in cavity in tree trunk (Photo by Muzina)."]][[image:taxo4254/brood comb.png width="538" height="244" align="left" caption="Figure 4B. Brood combs of a typical beehive (Illustration by Xaven Wong)."]]
 * =<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 140%;">5) Identifying the right honeybee = ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">After a beekeeper chooses which honeybee to farm, he/she needs to purchase or find the right honeybee. Different honeybees have different behaviours and habitat requirements. Careless identification of honeybees can thus lead to dire consequences for the beekeeper! The honeybees have many morphological similarities which make them hard to distinguish to the amateur beekeeper. It is hence crucial to know the diagnostic features of the honeybee of interest to ensure successful care and breeding of the honeybees. The Oriental Honeybee can be distinguished from the European Honeybee (//A. mellifera//), Giant Honeybee (//A. dorsata//) and Dwarf Honeybee (//A. florea//) by the following characters (Table 2):

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Table 2. Differentiating traits between various species of //Apis// 2]. || || ||
 * [[image:cubit.jpg width="663" height="508" align="center" caption="Figure 5A. Forewing of Apis sp. showing how cubital index (i.e. ratio of two wing vein segments) is measured (Photo by Walker)."]]
 * [[image:cerana compare.jpg width="636" height="491" align="center" caption="Figure 5C. Pinned Apis spp. to show relative size of bees (A. florea not shown) (Photo by Walker)."]]


 * =<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 140%;">6) Life Cycle = ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">The Oriental Honeybee is holometabolous, which means that individuals undergo four distinct life stages—egg, larva, pupa, and adult (Figure 6). The following shows the development of a typical worker bee (total 21 days) 19, 20]:

__<span style="background-color: #ffff77; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Eggs (3 days): __ <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">The queen lays a single egg in each brood cell. Eggs are small, white, and oval in shape (Figure 6). Larvae emerge from eggs after three days.

__<span style="background-color: #ffff77; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Larvae (6 days): __ <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Newly hatched first instar larvae curl into a C-shape at the bottom of the cell. Larvae are white in color, blind, legless, and with a wet shine (Figure 6). The larvae are fed by the nurse bees with either brood food (pollen and nectar) or royal jelly. When the larva is fully grown and no longer needs to be fed (final instar larva), worker bees cap its cell with a thin layer of wax. Unlike the flat cap of a honey-storage cell, the cap of a brood cell shows a slight protuberance.

__<span style="background-color: #ffff77; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Pupae (12 days): __ <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">The sealed larva then spins a cocoon around itself and begins to pupate, i.e. to shed its last larval integument and differentiate into a pupa (Figure 6). The pupal cells are undisturbed until pupation is complete.

__<span style="background-color: #ffff77; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Adults: __ <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Before emerging, the pupa grows gradually darker in colour. After it is completely transformed into an adult, it slowly chews its way out of the cell. The adult Oriental Honeybee may be a drone, worker or queen bee (Figure 7 & Table 3) depending on its genetic content and its diet during the larval stage.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Table 3. Comparison of the three different types of adult forms of the Oriental Honeybee <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">19, 20] <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">(Illustrations by Xaven Wong). <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;"> || || <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Swarming generally happens in the spring and summer in temperate areas. In tropical areas, where climate is more favorable year-round, swarming can occur frequently 19, 20]. C <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 1.5;">olony numbers are heavily depleted after swarming events. <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%; line-height: 1.5;">Hence, beekeepers need to be aware of its occurrence and the stimuli of swarming such that they may manage swarming activities. Also, the swarming of bees can frighten people—who may end up calling for pest control—even though the bees are less aggressive during this period 29].
 * =<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 140%;">7) Reproduction (Swarming & Mating flight) = ||
 * __<span style="background-color: #ffff77; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Swarming __

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Abundant resources (nectar and pollen) and large colony size (overcrowding) are thought to be the primary triggers for swarming. To initiate swarming, the colony will raise 10 to 20 daughter queens. When the daughter queens are in the late pupal stage, the original queen and up to two-thirds of the adult workers leave the colony (as a swarm) and settle about 30 m away from the original nest (Figure 8). Some worker bees that have been tasked to scout the area will report to the swarm if they have found a suitable new home for the original queen and her followers. After which, the swarm migrates to their new home. The daughter queen will occupy the old nest after her mating flight 19, 20, 30].

__<span style="background-color: #ffff77; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Mating flight __ <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Once the daughter queens emerge as adults, they fight until only one queen remains. The remaining queen is unmated and must leave the colony on mating flights where she will mate with 10–20 drones (out of several thousands). These drones come from neighbouring colonies and fly to the “drone congregation area” during mating season. To ensure that the drones have enough energy during the mating flight, they were well fed by the workers in their own colonies prior to their flight 19, 20]. From the mating flight, the queen bee has the collected sperm stored in a special organ called the spermatheca, which is used to fertilize her eggs for the rest of her reproductive lifespan 19]. || ||
 * =<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 140%;">8) Foraging = ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Foraging by honeybees is linked to the 1) sustainability of the colony and 2) pollination services, which are both of great interest to the beekeeper. The foraging area of the Oriental Honeybee must have sufficient foraging opportunities for the honeybees or they may migrate/abscond 19, 20]. Foraging will depend on the physical features of the flowers (i.e. colour, shape and odour), floral density, distance from the hive and environmental conditions such as temperature, humidity, light intensity, solar radiation, time of the day and wind velocity 31, 32, 33, 34, 35], and it is the beekeeper's job to ensure that all conditions are desirable to allow foraging.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">It is also interesting to note that the Oriental Honeybee generally visits flowers early in the morning (even earlier than the European Honeybee), which is a time when the caloric reward is greatest and competition with other pollinators is minimal. It has higher energetic demands compared to smaller bees like the Dwarf Honeybee, and its superior thermoregulatory capabilities allow it to tolerate colder temperatures, and as such, it is observed to forage under cooler conditions, compared to other honeybees. Oriental Honeybees normally forage about 300 m away from its nest, but can forage to about 1–1.5 km if necessary 4, 35].

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">The types of flowers in the proximity, their abundances and their blooming periods can affect how much the bees forage, and so, a beekeeper might be interested in constructing floral calendars to keep track of the flowering periods. It is also important for the beekeeper to know what are the plants that are preferred by the honeybees. Honey plants are plants that produce more nectar and little or no pollen, while pollen plants are the reverse of that. Pollen plants are especially important at the time of colony build-up, when the bees need large amounts of the protein contained in pollen for their brood-rearing 20]. Ideally, a good beekeeping area is one in which honey and pollen plants grow abundantly and with a relatively long flowering season. The beekeeper ought to know the time and duration of the flowering season of every major honey plant, including the environmental factors affecting them, and make a reasonable assessment of the supporting capacity (of the colony) of each area.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Apart from nectar and pollen, field bees also collect plant gum (propolis) and water. Propolis is an adhesive material, which the bees use in comb construction, to coat the interior of the hive, and to seal cracks. Water is used to cool the hive and to dilute the honey fed to the larvae. During the heat of the day, some foragers may switch from nectar to water collection, or they may prefer to collect nectar with a low sugar concentration (i.e. higher water concentration) 20]. Likewise, the beekeeper has to ensure all these resources are available and accessible to his/her bees. ||  ||
 * =<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 140%;">9) Taxonomy & Phylogeny = ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Beekeepers are not the only ones interested in honeybees. Scientists are often interested in the taxonomy, phylogeny and conservation of the honeybees due to their importance to and interactions with the ecosystem. Let us look at the taxonomic status of the Oriental Honeybee 36]:


 * <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Kingdom: Animalia **
 * <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Phylum: Arthropoda **
 * <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Class: Insecta **
 * <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Order: Hymenoptera **
 * <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Family: Apidae **
 * <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Genus: //Apis// **
 * <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Species epithet: //cerana// **

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">There must be a suitable species concept applied in defining //Apis cerana// as a species before its phylogenetic position can be determined as accurately as possible. //Apis cerana// was first described by Fabricius (1793), and later more thoroughly described by Gerstäcker (1863) who published the first comprehensive phylogenetic and taxonomic treatise on //Apis//, and reduced all previously described forms to only the original four Linnean and Fabrician species. When delineating and defining the //Apis// species, Engel (1999) applied a phylogenetic species concept and considered //Apis nuluensis// a synonym of //Apis cerana//—which many apiculturists disagreed with. Many other scientists have employed other species concepts—typically the biological species or the evolutionary species concepts. Even now, the number of recognised species of honeybees is uncertain. Nonetheless, the species identity of //Apis cerana// is reconfirmed using phylogenetic studies and looking at species-specific characteristics. Scientists have combined metrical and descriptive morphological characters, DNA characteristics, behaviour and nesting of the bees so as to holistically define honeybee species, and more easily identify them, in both equipped laboratory and field conditions 37]. In other words, even though there may not be an agreement on a single species concept that should be applied in delineating //Apis cerana// as a species, there is a general consensus amongst scientists and apiculturalists of what should be considered //Apis cerana//.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Phylogenetic trees are constantly reconstructed by scientists to show the evolutionary relationships at a high resolution (e.g. comparing phylogeny between //Apis spp//.) or at a lower resolution (e.g. comparing phylogeny between families). Different tree construction methods (Figures 9A & B) and/or use of species concepts can led to different phylogenetic trees constructed. Even though there may still be some debates on how the //Apis spp//. are related, there is more agreement on where //Apis spp//. fits in a phylogenetic tree which compares higher taxonomic ranks, where phylogenetic resolution is reduced (Figure 10). ||
 * [[image:rukhsana tree new.png width="755" height="334" align="center" caption="Figure 9A. Simplified phylogenetic tree of Apis spp. based on Rukhsana, Akhilesh & Sebastian (2014) constructed using NJ method. A. cerana is marked in red (Illustration by Xaven Wong)." link="taxo4254/Apis cerana Fabricius, 1793#f9a"]]

||  ||
 * [[image:apini new.png width="800" height="1013" align="center" caption="Figure 10. Maximum clade credibility tree of the Bayesian phylogenetic analysis of family Apidae revealing the evolutionary relationships between subfamilies and tribes. Apis spp. is under subfamily Apinae, tribe Apini, which is marked in blue (Illustration by Cardinal, Straka & Danforth)." link="Apis cerana Fabricius, 1793#f10"]] ||  ||

=<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 140%;">10) References =

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">1. National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d. //Apis cerana//. Retrieved from www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov on 19 October 2015. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">2. Walker, K., 2005. Asiatic Honeybee. //Pest and Disease Image Library//. Retrieved from www.padil.gov.au on 15 October 2015. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">3. Agri-food & Veterinary Authority of Singapore, 2015. Meeting Singapore's Food Supply. Retrieved from www.ava.gov.sg on 12 November 2015. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">4. <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">Partap, U., 2011. The Pollination Role of Honeybees. In: //<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 1.5;">Honeybees of Asia //<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">, Hepburn, H. R. & Radloff, S. E. (eds.). Heidelberg, Springer. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">5. Momose, K., Yumoto, T., Nagamitsu, T., Kato, M., Nagamasu, H., Sakai, S., Harrison, R., Itioka, T., Hamid, A. A., 1998. Pollination biology in a lowland dipterocarp forest in Sarawak. Malaysia. I. Characteristics of the plant-pollinator community in a lowland dipterocarp forest. //American Journal of Botany//, **85**: 1477-1501. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">6. Corlett, R. T., 2001. Pollination in a degraded tropical landscape: a Hong Kong case study. //Journal of Tropical Ecology//, **17**: 155-161. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">7. McGregor, S. E., 1976. //Insect Pollination of cultivated crop plants//. Washington, USDA. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">8. Free, J. B., 1993. //Insect pollination of crops, 2nd edition//. London, Academic. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">9. Corlett, R. T., 2011. Honeybees in Natural Ecosystems. In: //Honeybees of Asia//, Hepburn, H. R. & Radloff, S. E. (eds.). Heidelberg, Springer. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">10. Partap, U. & Partap, T., 2001. Declining apple production and worried Himalayan farmers: promotion of honeybees for pollination. //Issues in Mountain Development (IMD)//. Kathmandu, ICIMOD. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 23.4px;">11. Partap, U. & Partap, T., 2002. //<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 23.4px;">Warning signals from apple valleys of the HKH region: pollination problems and farmers' management efforts //<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 23.4px;">. Kathmandu, ICIMOD. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">12. Ahmad, F., Joshi, S. R., Gurung, M. B., 2003. //The Himalayan cliff bee Apis laboriosa and the honey hunters of the Himalayas//. Kathmandu, ICIMOD. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">13. Eardley, C., Roth, D., Clarke, C., Buchmann, S., Gemmill, B., 2006. //Pollinators and pollination: a resource book for policy and practice//. Pretoria, African Pollinator Initiative. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">14. Morse, R. A., Calderone, N. W., 2001. The value of honeybees as pollinators of US crops in 2000. //Bee Culture//, **128**: 1-15. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">15. Kenmore, P. & Krell, R., 1998. Global perspectives on pollination in agriculture and agro ecosystem management. In: //Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Conservation and Sustainable use of Pollinators in Agriculture//, 7-9 October 1997, Sao Paulo. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">16. Devy, S. & Davidar, P., 2003. Pollination systems of trees in Kakachi, a mid-elevation wet evergreen forest in Western Ghats, India. //American Journal of Botany//, **90**: 650-657. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">17. Somanathan, H., Warrant, E. J., Borges, R. M., Wallen, R., Kelber, A., 2009. Resolution and sensitivity of the eyes of the Asian honeybees, //Apis florea//, //Apis cerana// and //Apis dorsata//. //Journal of Experimental Biology//, 212: 2448-2453. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">18. Kuriakose, G., Sinicau, P. A. & Shivana K. R., 2009. Domestication of cardamom (//Elettaria cardamomum//) in Western Ghats, India: divergence in productive traits and a shift in major pollinators. //Annals of Botany//, **103**: 727-733. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">19. Egelie, A. A., Mortensen, A. N., Gillett-Kaufman, J. L. & Ellis, J. D., 2015. Featured Creatures. Asian honey bee. University of Florida. Retrieved from www.entnemdept.ufl.edu on 12 November 2015. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">20. Akratanakul, P., 1987. //Beekeeping in Asia//. Rome, FAO. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">21. Ling, C., 2015. Local Honey: Don't Bee Afraid. //Makansutra//. Retrieved from www.makansutra.com on 21 November 2015. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">22. Edible Garden City, n.d. Retrieved from www.ediblegardencity.com on 21 November 2015. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">23. Wee, L., 2015. Urban farms taking off all over Singapore. //The Straits Times//. Retrieved from www.straitstimes.com on 21 November 2015. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">24. National Parks Board, 2015. Community Gardens. Retrieved from www.nparks.gov.sg on 21 November 2015. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">25. Soh, Z. W. W. & Ngiam, R. W. J., 2013. Flower-visiting bees and wasps in Singapore Parks (Insecta: Hymenoptera). //Nature in Singapore//, **6**:153-172. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">26. National Parks Board, 2015. Community Garden Edibles Competition. Retrieved from www.nparks.gov.sg on 22 November 2015. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">27. Hisashi, F., 2010. Profitable Beekeeping with //Apis cerana//. //Bees for Development//, **94**: 8-11. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">28. Hepburn, H. R. & Radloff, S. E., 2011.Biogeography. In: //<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">Honeybees of Asia //<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">, Hepburn, H. R. & Radloff, S. E. (eds.). Heidelberg, Springer. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">29. Mussen, E. C., 2012. Removing Honey Bee Swarms and Established Hives. //University of California Agriculture & Natural Resources//. Retrieved from www.ipm.ucdavis.edu on 12 November 2015. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">30. Seely, T. D., 2009. //The wisdom of the hive: the social pysiology of honey bee colonies//. Massachusetts, Harvard University Press. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">31. <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 23.4px;">Lundie, A. E., 1925. The flight activities of the honeybee. //<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 23.4px;">USDA Bulletin //<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 23.4px;">, **<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 23.4px;">1328 **<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 23.4px;">: 1-38. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">32. <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 23.4px;">Verma, L. R., 1990. //<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 23.4px;">Beekeeping in intergrated mountain development //<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 23.4px;">. New Delhi, Oxford and IBH. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 23.4px;">33. Visscher, P. K. & Seeley, T. D., 1982. Foraging strategy of honeybee colonies in a temperate deciduous forest. //Ecology//, **63**: 1790-1801. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 23.4px;">34. Corbet, S. A., Fussel, M., Ake, R., Fraser, A., Gunsen, E., Salvage, A. & Smith, K., 1993. Temperature and the pollinating activity of social bees. //Ecological Entomology//, **18**: 17-30. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 23.4px;">35. Abrol, D. P., 2011. Foraging. <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">In: //<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">Honeybees of Asia //<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">, Hepburn, H. R. & Radloff, S. E. (eds.). Heidelberg, Springer. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">36. Integrated Taxonomic Information System, 2015. Apis cerana Fabricius 1793. Retrieved from www.itis.gov on 30 August 2015. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">37. Radloff, S. E., Hepburn, H. R. & Engel, M. S., The Asian Species of //Apis//. In: //<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">Honeybees of Asia //<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">, Hepburn, H. R. & Radloff, S. E. (eds.). Heidelberg, Springer. 

=<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 140%;">11) Figures used = <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">Figures used either have a Creative Commons license or is illustrated by Xaven Wong.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">Oriental Honeybee //Apis cerana// Fabricius, 1973. Budak, 2015. Retrieved from www.flickr.com on 19 November 2015.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">Figure 1A: Franklin, M., 2009. Retrieved from www.flickr.com on 11 November 2015.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">Figure 1B: Bee Pollen Hub, 2012. Retrieved from www.flickr.com on 11 November 2015.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">Figure 1C: Veggiefrog, 2008. Retrieved from www.flickr.com on 11 November 2015.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">Figure 2A: Azman, 2001. Retrieved from commons.wikimedia.org on 11 November 2015.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">Figure 2B: Kimbler, J., 2015. Retrieved from www.devianart.com on 11 November 2015.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">Figure 3: Canuckguy, 2011. Retrieved from commons.wikimedia.org on 11 November 2015.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">Figure 4A: Muzina, S., 2011. Retrieved from www.flickr.com on 25 November 2015.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">Figure 4C: Mbeo, 2014. Retrieved from www.flickr.com on 11 November 2015.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">Figure 5A: Walker, K., 2005. Retrieved from www.padil.gov.au on 15 October 2015.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">Figure 5B: Cushman, D., 2006. Retrieved from www.dave-cushman.net on 11 November 2015.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">Figure 5C: Walker, K., 2005. Retrieved from www.padil.gov.au on 15 October 2015.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">Figure 5D: Walker, K., 2005. Retrieved from www.padil.gov.au on 15 October 2015.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">Figure 7: Azman, 2011. Retrieved from commons.wikimedia.org on 11 November 2015.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">Figure 8: Wheeler, S., 2014. Retrieved from www.flickr.com on 25 November 2015.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">Figure 9A: <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 23.4px;">Rukhsana, K., Akhilesh, V. P. & Sebastian, C. D., 2014. Deciphering the molecular phylogenetics of the Asian honey bee, Apis cerana and inferring the phylogeographical relationships using DNA barcoding. //<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 23.4px;">Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies //<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 23.4px;">, **<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 23.4px;">2 **<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 23.4px;">(4): 218-220. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">Figure 9B: <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 23.4px;">Garnery, L., Vautrin, D., Cornuet, J. M. & Solignac, M., 1991. Phylogenetic relationships in the genus Apis inferred from mitochondrial DNA sequence data. //<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 23.4px;">Apidologie //<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 23.4px;">, **<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 23.4px;">22 **<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 23.4px;">: 87-92. 

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px;">Figure 10: <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 23.4px;"> Cardinal, S., Straka, J., Danforth, B. N., 2010. Comprehensive phylogeny of apid bees reveals the evolutionary origins and antiquity of cleptoparasitism. //<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 23.4px;">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences //<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 23.4px;">, **<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 23.4px;">107 **<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15.6px; line-height: 23.4px;">(37): 16207-16211. 

<span style="display: block; height: 1px; left: 0px; overflow: hidden; position: absolute; top: 325px; width: 1px;">j;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;Honeybees are one of the most important pollinators in both natural ecosystems and crops, and many //Apis// species are visitors of a wide range of plant species (e.g. Momose et al., 1998; Corlett, 2001 ).