Lates+calcarifer

**//Lates calcarifer//** (Bloch, 1790)

Asian Seabass

toc (Photo credits: Mitch Ames, Licensed under Creative Commons Attribution- ShareAlike)

=Name =

Binomial: //Lates calcarifer// Vernacular: Sea Bass (Asia), Barramundi (Australia), giant sea pearch (Papua New guinea), 尖吻鲈 Common names in Singapore market: 金目鲈 (jin1 mu4 lu2), Siakap, Kim Bak Lor

=Synonyms = Meaning of synonyms click [|here]

//Holocentrus calcarifer// (Bloch 1790), Type locality: Debated //Holocentrus heptadactylus// (Lacepede, 1802), Type locality: unknown //Coius vacti// (Hamilton, 1822), Type locality: Ganges River, India //Lates nobilis// (Cuvier, 1828), Type locality: Pondicherry India) //Pseudolates cavifrons// (Alleyne & Macleay, 1877), Type locality: Coast of New Guinea/ Torres Strait //Lates darwiniensis// (Macleay, 1878), Type locality: Darwin Australia

=<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 20pt;">Diagnosis =


 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">Colour ** || * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">Adult: Blue to green-grey dorsally, silvery on the sides, white below
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">Juveniles: Olive brown dorsally, silvery on sides ||
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">Body ** || * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">Pointed head with a concave forehead becoming convex towards dorsal fins
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">Elongate and compressed body
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">large mouth, slightly oblique with upper jaw extending distinctly behind the eyes ||
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">Fins ** || * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">Deep notch separating the spiny and soft part of the dorsal fins
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">Dorsal fin: 7-9 spines and 10-11 soft rays
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">Anal fin: 3 spines and 7-8 soft rays
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">Rounded caudal fin ||
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">Lateral Scale Line ** || * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">52-56 lateral line scale
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">6 rows of scales between base of 3rd dorsal fin spine and lateral line ||
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">Size ** || * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">Common length:1500mm
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">Maximum length: 2000mm ||

<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 8pt; text-align: justify;">Figure 1. Sketch of //L. calcarifer// and important diagnosis features. A: 7-9 spines and 10-11 soft rays at dorsal fin. B: 3 spines and 7-8 soft rays at anal spines. C. Rounded claudal fin. D: Pointed head with concave forehead becoming convex towards the dorsal fin. E: Produced lower jaw. F: posterior edge of the maxilla falling distinctly behind the eyes G: 52-56 lateral line scale and 6 rows of scales between 3rd dorsal fin spine and lateral line. H: Common length is 1500mm and maximum length is 2000mm. (Photo credit: FAO, edited by Kwan Mei Yen, Licensed under Creative Commons Attribution- non commercial) //Try this!////The first video below is a video of L. calcarifer while the second video below is a tank with several species including L. calcarifer. Try finding L. calcarifer in the second video if you can!// media type="youtube" key="PXTBpf-HJpY" width="428" height="267"media type="youtube" key="OegE14-ESOs" width="437" height="275" //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Click here for answer // //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Video 1 (up): Video of L. calcarifer swimming in the tank.. Video 2 (down): Group of fishes swimming together in a tank, including L. calcarifer. // =<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 20pt;">Introduction =

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">//Lates calcarifer// is a popular aquaculture and sport fish species. It is not only well-known world-wide, but also has a long history with Singapore. As explained below, general information like biology and ecology regarding this species varies according to yearly conditions, geological conditions and physiological conditions. Highlight in <span style="color: #000080; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">blue <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;"> under the respective topics, this page also highlight the relationship of this species with Singapore. Our nature population and escapees from aquaculture farms are closely related to local fishing enthusiasts while our aquaculture populations are generating incomes for us. On the other hand, our natural population are being affected by urbanization of Singapore, especially due to the damming of our rivers, which interrupts with the spawning of this species. Currently, the taxonomy identity this species is still highly debated and below, this page also reviewed some of the recent articles concerning this topic = =

=<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 20pt;">Etymology = <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">Meaning of etymology click[| here]

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">The word ‘calcarifer’ translates to ‘thorn carrier’ due to the [|preopercular] spines and thorns present on the fish 1] (Figure 2). The thorns on the dorsal fins would prevent predator from attacking it from the back. Stroking the fish from the back to the front would be painful as spines are pointed backwards.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">Figure 2. Preopercular spines as shown in blue box and thorns as shown in the red box. (Photo credits: Henry Sullivan Thomas, Edited by Kwan Mei Yen, Licensed under Public domain)

= = =<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 20pt;">Distribution =

__<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">“They are native to many places” __

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">//L. calcarifer// are native to the Indo-West Pacific region from Arabian gulf to Southern China, Taiwan, Papua New Guinea and northern Australia. The eastern limit is at south east tip of Papua New Guinea mainland, northern limit at Amoy China (24 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt; vertical-align: super;">o <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">30”N), western limit at Persian Gulf and southern limit at Noosa river (26 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt; vertical-align: super;">o <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">30’s) and Ashburton River (22 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt; vertical-align: super;">o <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">30’S) of Australia mainland 1].

media type="custom" key="26824160" <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">Figure 3. Distribution map of L. calcarifer, showing the western, eastern, northern and southern limits

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">Higher temperatures, species competition and higher salinities due to lack of freshwater inflow could have prevented //L. calcarifer// moving into the African continent 2].

=<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 20pt;">Ecology and spawning =

__<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">“They survive in various salinity levels!” __

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">This species is [|euryhaline] and thus are found in freshwater, estuarine, lagoons, brackish, rivers and coastal areas 3]. It is experimentally proven using isotope ratios in [|otoliths] (ear bone of the fish) that some of the fish are [|catadromous] while some are predominantly marine residents 4] (Figure 3).

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">Adults in freshwater usually migrate downstream, to spawn in water with higher salinity as eggs need saltwater to develop fully. Spawning usually occurs in brackish water like the river mouth and is seasonal, depending on geographical locations and yearly variation 5].

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">Generally, spawning is usually synchronized during the wet season, for juveniles to advantages of the larger aquatic habitat and move into off-stream nursery habitat 6,7]. Spawning is associated with incoming tides and lunar cycle, to transports the eggs or larvae to the estuarine or brackish water 5,7,8]. After hatching, the larvae move into coastal swamps, lagoons or other [|lotic] habitats which act as the nursery grounds. Such nursery grounds are high in food abundance, provide protection and have less predators 5,9,10]. Surviving juveniles moves either into coastal water or ascend into freshwater at the coastal rivers and creeks. However, some alternate between fresh and salt water, at various ages or under various environment conditions 1]. The cues for such fish to move between fresh and salt water are complex and occur irregularly. The general life cycle is described in Figure 4.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 12pt;"> <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 12pt;">Figure 4. General life cycle of //L. calcarifer//. Begin from spawning & growth: After spawning at estuarine or brackish water near river mouth, the larvae and early juveniles move into lotic habitats, lagoons, coastal swamps as nursery swamps. As they grow older, they might A: migrate up to river, B: remain in coastal areas or C: alternate between the habitats. Mature males usually migrate back to coastal ares to spawn. Sex reversal occur when they reach certain age, where the age they sex reverse depends on the population and other cues. (Picture by Kwan Mei Yen)

<span style="color: #000080; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;"> **In the Singapore context:** //L. calcarifer// are observed in our estuaries and rivers like in Punggol, Singapore River and Serangoon. As rivers in Punggol and Serangoon are dammed to convert to reservoirs; //L. calcarifer// could not be observed using the same sampling techniques as compared to before and during damming, which is unexpected as //L. calcarifer// are known to be able to adapt to freshwater 11]. Some possible reasons could be due to the depletion of food caused by change in species composition. Alternatively, the sampling was not intensive enough. However, the damming of rivers in Singapore would prevent access to sea water and thus //L. calcarifer// that are trapped in freshwater might not be able to spawn successfully. As for the //L. calcarifer// in the coastal areas, with reduced input of nutrients from fresh water due to damming, the productivity of the estuarine/brackish water would also be reduced and affect the survivability of //L. calcarifer// and other estuarine associated species 12]. //L. calcarifer// are also found frequently around Singapore waters13,14]. However, the fishes could belong to the natural population or escapees from local farms, which are located both in the northern and southern parts of Singapore 15].

=<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 20pt;">Biology =

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">Sexual Development
__<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">“Almost all are born male” __

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">In most vertebrates, sexes are separated early due to sex differentiation (Figure 5). However, among vertebrates, teleosts represent almost all known types of sex determination systems 16]. It is stated that a third genome duplication occurred in the teleost lineage, giving genetic material for divergence and speciation 17,18,19]. Many evolved to present a huge diversity of sex determination and reproduction strategies.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">Being a teleost, //L. calcarifer// evolved to be protandrous hermaphrodites 20], where they first mature as males and then sex inverse to become female later in life (Figure 5). The age where the males sex reverse varies and depends on various factors like environment and physiological environment. Generally, the fish takes about 3-5 years to mature as male, and sex inversion occurs at about 6-8 years in most parts of Australia but some fishes at in the Gulf of Carpentatia mature before the age of 2 and sex reverse earlier 21]. Fishes in aquaculture setting in Asia and Australia usually mature earlier, and sex reversing within 4 years 15,22]. Thus, sex change can occur between 4-8 years while male maturation can occur between 1-5 years. However, not all females are derived from males. Primary females were observed in both the natural and the aquaculture environment 20].

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">Figure 5. Sex differentiation commonly seen vs. Sex differentiation of //L. calcarifer//. Sex change can occur between 4-8 years for //L. calcarifer//. (Picture by Kwan Mei Yen)

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">The transition cannot be observed morphologically and require invasive method like dissection to collect gonards. Hence, information about sex inversion is not complete due to the need of invasive methods and around at least several years for sex inversion to occur. However, recent studies suggest the possibility of using hormones levels in body mucous to determine sex [Temasek Life Sciences laboratory, Laszlo Orban group, unpublished data].

<span style="color: #000080; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">**In the Singapore context:** Little research is done about the sexual development of //L. calcarifer// in our wild population. Generally for our aquaculture population, the male reach maturation within 2.5 years and sex reverse to female between 3-4 years 15]. However, since different farms use fishes origin from different location (i.e. Farms like [|Barramundi Asia] uses Australia stock 23], while others uses Asia Stock), the sexual development might differs from farm to farm in Singapore.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">Diet
__<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">"Diet varies based on size" __

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">//Lates calcarifer// are carnivours, opportunistic predators and dermersal fish with diet changing according to their size. Wild populations feed on microcrustacea up to 50mm. The diet also transit into feeding on insects, fishes and crustaceans, depending on the availability of food, as they grow bigger 2,24,25].

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">In aquaculture setting, rotifers should be first given to larvae, and weaned to Artemia. Survival can be enhanced with highly-unsaturated fatty acid enhanced rotifers and brine shimp (Artemia) 26,27]. As brine shimp are expensive, other replacement can be cladoceran //Moina macropora// and //Diaphanosoma celebensis// 28,29]. As the fish grow older, they should be fed with trash fish. Alternatively, to reduce cost, plant based pellet food with enhanced essential nutrients can be used. Feeding should be done slowly to prevent overfeeding and water contamination. //L. calcarifer// are cannibalistic fishes and would feed on smaller ones that are smaller than 2/3 of their length. This sorting of the stock should be done every 4 days to reduce cannibalism 30].

<span style="color: #000080; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">**In the Singapore context:** Our wild population of //L. calcarifer// probably do not differ in diet compared to other populations. However, the feeding would still rely on food availability. In Singapore, selective breeding is on going for //L. calcarifer//. In terms of diet, experiments are carried out to better understand the feed and nutritional requirements of //L. calcarifer//, to increase nutritional value, health and growth rate for the aquaculture fish 31].

=<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 20pt;">Economic Value =

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">Aquaculture
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">Being a popular fish due to its dedicated fish flavor and nutritional value, //L. calcarifer// is highly valued throughout the Indo-Pacific region. It has been breed successfully in captivity and used for fisheries enhancement and aquaculture throughout Asia & Australia since 1973 32]. Being a hardy species, //L. calcarifer// is relatively easy to culture in cages and tolerate freshwater to full strength seawater. Being fast growing, they reach marketable size within 8 months 33]. Even though mentioned earlier that they are usually catadromous, most aquaculture fishes in seacages can spawn regularly in pure seawater, producing large amount of larvae. If not, spawning can be induced using hormones or environmental stimuli 34]. Hence, due to these many reasons, it has been claimed to be the “next big fish” in terms of economics 35]. Much money has been channeled to the development of aquaculture technology and research on the biology of //L. calcarifer//, leading to increasing production from almost since 1970s to more than 70000 tonnes in 2012 (Figure 6).

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">Figure 6. Global yearly aquaculture production in tonnes of //L. calcarifer// since 1950 to 2010. Data obtained from FAO - Fisheries and Aquaculture Information and Statistics Service – accessed on 10/11/2014.

<span style="color: #000080; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">**In the Singapore context:** //Lates calcarifer// is one of the main marine foodfish cultured in Singapore along with tilapia, milkfish, golden snapper (//Lutjanus// spp.) and estuarine grouper (//Epinephelus tauvina//) 15]. The development of sea cages intensified during mid 1981 when the government implemented a marine foodfish farming scheme to encourage people to set up floating farms in designated coastal areas along Northern parts of Singapore. In 1985, the total aquaculture production of //L. calcarifer// valued S$1.8 million, accounting 13% in terms quantity and 20% in terms of value 15]. The total production was 1284 tonnes in 1985 and around 4147 tonnes in 2011, accounting to 0.6% of the world’s production (Figure 7). Currently, we have fish farms in areas like the northern parts of Singapore, off Pasir Ris and southern parts of Singapore (e,g Palau Semakau) and even land-based closed aquaculture system which allows extensive water quality control by [|SIF technologies].

<span style="color: #000080; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">Figure 7. Global production of //L. calcarifer// according to countries in 2011. Data obtained from FAO - Fisheries and Aquaculture Information and Statistics Service – accessed on 19/02/2014.

<span style="color: #000080; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 19px;">Singapore government organization like National Research Foundation and Agri-food and Veterinary Authority of Singapore also provide research funding for selective breeding and genetic studies of //<span style="color: #000080; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 19px;">L. calcarifer //<span style="color: #000080; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 19px;"> to produce faster growth and disease resistance fish, which are on going [ <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 19px;">37 <span style="color: #000080; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 19px;">, <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 19px;">38 <span style="color: #000080; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 19px;">]. Local farms contribute up to about 15% of the total supply and we are planning to expand our aquaculture industry and greatly increasing our production. Currently, we have our local larvae supply of //<span style="color: #000080; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 19px;">L. calcarifer //<span style="color: #000080; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 19px;"> and established our production cycle from broodstock, larval rearing to grow-out facilities. The geological location of Singapore (being surrounded by sea and sheltered from natural disasters) and funding channeled into research and development would help generate more economic growth in terms of Aquaculture in the near future.

<span style="color: #000080; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 19px;">With depletion of fish stock worldwide, aquaculture technology to increase productivity and fish quality have became a key solution to stabilize the supply of food fish for mass consumption. By owning the technology for fish production, this will also stabilize the fish supply for Singapore, who imports almost all of our food product. To prepare for the development of this industry, local polytechnics are coming up with new diplomas related to aquaculture for our students.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">Recreational fishing
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">//Lates calcarifer// is also an important recreational fish, which is well loved among anglers who fish them using lines. Fishing of //L. calcarifer// has also become a tourism business in Australia. They are also stocked in ponds and lakes for recreational fishing. They grow up to around 1500mm and weight over 55kg and have good fighting ability 38]. As seen from the video below (2:06 - 3:00, 4:27 - 4:47, 5:12 - 6:35), skills and agility are required to catch //L. calcarifer// which are huge and strong. Catching them with a fishing rod indeed bring satisfaction to the anglers.

media type="youtube" key="vtKpghXwQIs" width="560" height="315" <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">Video 3: Video of fishing trip in the wild, including //L. calcarifer//

<span style="color: #000080; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">**In the Singapore context:** Fishing companies in Singapore or individuals will travel out to Singapore waters by boats to fish for //L. calcarifer// (own interview). Also, //L. calcarifer// can be caught in some of Singapore's jetty, being a good pastime for some Singaporeans 39]. Below is a video of //L. calcarifer// being caught in Singapore's Woodland jetty. Visit [|FishingSpore Youtube page] and local [|blog1] [|blog2] for more videos/stories regarding recreational fishing and fishing hotspot in Singapore! //L. calcarifer// indeed is commonly caught in Singapore water like Woodland jetty, Yishun Dam and Punggol Waterfront Jetty.

media type="youtube" key="E6QLx24orcs" width="560" height="315" <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">Video 4: Video of L. calcarifer caught in Woodland jetty

=<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 20pt;">Taxonomy =

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">History
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">//Lates calcarifer// was first described by Bloch (1790) using samples found at the Indo-Pacific region from Dutch merchants 1]. It was first named //Holocentrus calcarifer// and published at Naturgeschichte der ausländischen Fische. Morino, Berlin. The genus //Lates// (Cuvier and Valenciennes) was erected but in 1828, proposed to bring together other related species like the Nile perch (//L. niloticus// (Linnaeus, 1758)) for classification. The family to put //L. calcarifer// used to be highly debated and suggested to be put in Percinae, Centropomidae, Latidae and Serranidae 1]. Currently, it is placed in the family Latidae with three genera, //Psammoperca//, //Hypopterus// and //Lates// (excluding the extinct //Eolates//).

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">Clades
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">In descending order, with the clades below being a subset of the clades above: <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">>>Animalia <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;"> >> Chordata <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;"> >> Actinopterygii <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;"> >> Perciforms <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;"> >> Latidae <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;"> >> //Lates// <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;"> >> //Lates calcarifer// <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">Information Obtained from [|ITIS]

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">Between //Lates//
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">It is challenging to distinguish species within the same genus as the morphological features are very similar. There are only several non-overlapping parameters to distinguish the fishes. The table below show //L. niloticus// being challenging to distinguish from //L. calcarifer// morphologically and how to distinguish L. calcarifer from three other //Lates// that can be found in the Indo-West Pacific region 40].

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">Figure 8. Photo of //L. niloticus.// (Photo credit: N Sloth, Licensed under Creative Commons Attribution- non commercial)
 * [[image:lates niloticus.jpg width="403" height="269"]]

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Lates niloticus // <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">There are hardly any reliable ways or published to distinguish them apart, akin to many fish species where species identity is based solely on molecular data. The COI sequences of //[|L. niloticus]// and //[|L. calcarifer]// are available online on NCBI. Ecologically, //L. niloticus// is purely a freshwater fish as compared to L. calcarifer which is euryhaline. || <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">Figure 9. Photo of L. japonicus. (Photo credit: OpenCage, Licensed under Creative Commons Attribution- ShareAlike)

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Lates japonicus // <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">It can be distinguished from //L. calcarifer// by having 7-8 (vs. 6) rows of scales between the base of the third dorsal-fin spine and lateral line; 58-63 (vs. 52-56) lateral-line scale; and having the 3rd anal-find spine shorter than the 2nd. This species is distributed at coastal areas off south-eastern shikolu and Kyushu Islands. || <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">Figure 10. Holotype of L. Lakdiva stored in the [|Australian Museum Ichthyology Collection] (AMS I.37516-001) © Australian Museum
 * [[image:lates lak.jpg width="496" height="204"]]

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Lates lakdiva // <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">It can be distinguished from //L. calcarifer// by having 5 (vs. 6) rows of scales between the base of 3rd dorsal-fin spine and lateral line and having the 3rd dorsal fin spine 3.0 -3.5 (vs. 2.1-2.8) times the length of the second. This species is found in coastal seas off south-western Sri Lanka. || <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">Figure 11. Holotype of L. uwisara stored in the [|Australian Museum Ichthyology collection] (CSIRO H.6316-11) © Australian Museum

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Lates uwisara // <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">It can be distinguished from //L. calcarifer// by having 7 (vs. 6) scales between base of 3rd dorsal-fin spine and lateral line and having an eye diameter less than (v.s greater than) the depth of the maxilla. The length of the dorsal spine is equal or larger than the length of the pelvic spine. This species is found in estuaries between Sittang and Yangon, Burma. ||

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">Between Latidae
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">As mentioned, in the family Latidae, there are three genera named //Psammoperca//, //Hypopterus// and //Lates//. The first two genera only have one species each, //P. waigiensis// and //H. macropterus// respectively. //Lates// can be mainly distinguished from //Psammoperca// and //Hypopterus// as 1) lower edge of the preopercle is serrated; 2) maxilla falling distinctly behind the eyes and; 3)produced lower jaw. In addition, //P. waigiensis// and //H. macropterus// are strictly coastal fish that would not enter freshwater unlike //Lates//. //L. calcarifer// average length is 1500 mm while //P. waigiensis// and //H. macropterus// rarely grow bigger than 400mm and 140mm respectively 41].

<span style="color: #000080; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">**In the Singapore context:** //Psammoperca waigiensis// is distributed across the Indo-West Pacific region and thus, is commonly found in Singapore’s coastal water and fishery ports together with //L. calcarifer// 13]. There are several morphological features to tell them apart easily. //P. waigiensis// has maxilla that fall under the eyes (vs. maxilla falling distinctly behind the eyes), no produced lower jaw, wide apart nostrils and being smaller than 40cm (Figure 12).

<span style="color: #000080; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">Figure 12. Photo of //Psammoperca waigiensis.// Can be differentiated from //L. calcarifer// because A: maxilla does not fall behind the eyes but under. B: lower jaw is not in advance of upper jaw. C: nostrils are set wider apart. D: rarely exceed 40cm. (Photo credit: Randell, J.E., edited by Kwan Mei Yen, Licensed under Creative Commons Attribution- non commercial)

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">Problems in Taxonomy <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">All the //Lates// populations in the Indo-Pacific region were named //L. calcarifer.// However, only in 2012, two new species //L. lakdiva// and //L. uwisara// were recognized from within the range of //L. calcarifer// based on to morphological analysis 42]. Also karyotype studies done on Austraria and India population showed that the chromosome formulae are different between the two population despite having the same number of chromosome (48) 43,44].

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">In addition, published recently in 2014, Vij //et al.// showed that there are 2 distinct species of //L. calcaifer// across its geographical range, based on sequencing the COI, 16S rDNA and highly variable D-loop region of the mitochondria. India subcontinent and Myanmar group clearly form a well supported clade away from the Asia plus Australia group 45]. Also according to Yue //et al.// wild caught //L. calcarifer// from Australia, India and central Indonesia showed strong level of genetic divergence using 7 microsatellite loci 46]. Other researches also showed that there is a deep genetic divergence between Asian and Australian populations and even within South East Asia population 47, 48].

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">Thus, as more investigation is done on //L. calcarifer//, there might be change in species name as more information regarding hybridization, molecular markers and the extend of how the fishes are isolated from each other come in.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">Type Locality & Type Information
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">Determining type locality is made challenging when Bloch’s holotype at the was misplaced and Bloch’s original description and illustration is somewhat inaccurate. A lectotype ZMB 13652 at Museum für Naturkunde, Berlin was recovered and believed to be Bloch's type 40]. The type locality has been changed from originally Japan to Java 40] and currently believed to be from Pattukottai, Tamil Nadu, India, based on interpretation of Bloch’s handwritten catalogue 40].

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">As mentioned earlier, all the //Lates// populations in the Indo-Pacific region were named //L. calcarifer//. However, the current //L. calcarifer// might be split up into other species based on molecular evidence. But, even if we want to establish the natural population of //L. calcarifer// at Pattukottai as the actual //L. calcarifer//, it would be challenging as other //Lates// are likely to be bought into the region for aquaculture purpose. Interbreeding would make identifying the ‘real’ //L. calcarifer// which Bloch described challenging, even with molecular methods.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">Mitochondria sequences
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">The [|full mitochondrial sequence] can be obtained from NCBI.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">Genetic Linkage Map
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">The genetic linkage map of //L. calcarifer// is also mapped based on DNA sequences of //L. calcarifer// individuals obtained from a selection programme in Singapore. The[| first linkage map] is published in 2007 while the [|high-resolution linkage map] is published in 2011. Both are free-access articles.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">Phylogenetic Tree
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">As mentioned earlier, the family to place //L. calcarifer// in is debated. Currently, most papers would place //L. calcarifer// in the family Latidae. Having two sub-families Latidae and Centropominae under the family Centropomidae is first proposed by Greenwood in 1976 49]. However, this study by Otero provided morphological evidence to have Latidae as a family because Centropomidae is not monophyly group 50]. Even with molecular data, the closest family related to Latidae is still highly debated. with some claiming it to be Centropominae 51,52, 53] and some claiming it to be others 54,55]. Overall, it is generally agreed that Latidae is a monophyly group. The phylogenetic tree below shows the relationship of //L. calcarifer// and three other species in the family Latidae, one of the most comprehensive study to date, having including several species in the family Latidae. The closest family according to this study to Latidae is Centropominae based on maximum likelihood and Bayesian analysis with 12888bp aligned. It is also surprising to see that all the studies mentioned under this section exclude genus //Hypopterus// which is part of family Latidae.



<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 1.5;">Figure 13. Phylogenetic relationship between //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 1.5;">L. calcarifer //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 1.5;"> and related species in the same family. Although there are some species within //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 1.5;">Latidae //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 1.5;"> are missing, this is currently one of the more comprehensive study using more genetic markers and species. (Image published by Li, //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 1.5;">et al //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 1.5;"> in [|Molecular Phylogenetic and Evolution 60 (2011) 463-471], permission granted)

=<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 20pt;">Conservation Issues =

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">//Lates calcarifer// is not listed endangered by any conversational organisation.

<span style="color: #000080; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">**In the Singapore context:** However, it is surprising to see it listed "think twice" in the [|Singapore Seafood Guide] accessed by WWF Singapore. This means //L. calcarifer// fisheries are at risk of becoming unsustainable, due to management, environmental or stock issues. Some reasons could be due to the environmental issues brought about by the aquaculture industry like pollution caused by over-feeding and increased nutrients input leading to algae bloom 56]. In 2009, a huge number of dead fish were found on the shores of Pasir Ris due to algae bloom and the link to pollution from aquaculture farms is till unknown 57, 58]. Currently, water quality studies and algae bloom management are ongoing. Another problem would be genetic pollution, when farmed fishes escape from their cages and breed with potentially distinct local wild populations. This is worrying as molecular studies are starting to show //L. calcarifer// might be made up of several potential species and interbreeding would prevent us from identifying the indigenous population. However, if good management and development of new technology are in place, balance between conservation and economics can be achieved.

=<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 20pt;">Related Links =

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">[|Fao, ////Lates calcarifer////] : Description on the detailed aquaculture techniques to rear //L. calcarifer// <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">[|Eol, ////Lates calcarifer////] : Information of //L. calcarifer// on Encyclopedia of life <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">[|FishBase, ////Lates calcarifer////] : Information of //L. calcarifer// on FishBase <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">[|ADW, ////Lates calcarifer////]: Information of //L. calcarifer// on Animal Diversity <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">[|Wild Shores of Singapore]: News and reviews about Singapore marine issues

=<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 20pt;">Important Notes =

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">The page is written on 13 Nov 2014 based on as much latest published paper and reviews as possible. The taxonomy and systematic is still pretty vague currently and as more data comes in, information on this page might not be relevant anymore. It is likely that there will be changes in the phylogenetic tree and //L. calcarifer// splitting into more species very soon.

=<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 20pt;">Reference =

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 <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">[57] Chen, K. 2010. Some thoughts of the fish kill in Pasir RIs. Water quality in Singapore. Accessed on 14/11/2014. http://waterqualityinsingapore.blogspot.sg/2010/01/some-thoughts-on-fish-kill-at-pasir-ris.html

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;"> <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> [58] WIldshores. 2009. Why are there so many dead fish on Pasir RIs?. Wildshores of Si <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 8pt;">ngapore. Accessed on 14/11/2014. http://wildshores.blogspot.sg/2009/12/why-are-there-so-many-dead-fish-on.html#.VHILSYuUckA

=<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 20pt;">Acknowledgement =

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14pt;">I would like to express my gratitude to Prof. Rudolf Meier from National University of Singapore for his guidance and opportunity to complete this species page. I would also like to thank Prof. Laszlo Orban and Dr Liew Woei Chang from Temasek Life Science Laboratory for providing me with unpublished data regarding the status of this species in Singapore. Finally, I would like to thank people who have placed free-access photos for the public to use.