Pocillopora+acuta


 * //Pocillopora acuta// Lamarck, 1816 **



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=Overview=

//Pocillopora acuta// is a species of colonial hard [|coral] consisting of many individual animals known as polyps that deposit a calcium carbonate skeleton. They have [|symbiotic] algae (or zooxanthellae) from the [|genus] //[|Symbiodinium]// within cells in the inner tissue layer of the [|cnidarian] animal host [__1__]. The algae in their tissue is also responsible for giving the corals their unique and beautiful colouration. This [|symbiosis]  provides food to the corals and is crucial to the ability of corals to deposit their massive calcium carbonate skeletons that form the structure of [|coral reefs] [__2__]. Corals from the [|genus] //[|Pocillopora]// including //Pocillopora acuta// are widely used models in ecological [__3__], experimental studies to investigate the effect of [|climate change] (rising ocean temperature) on corals 4], and even the effectiveness of coral transplantation to restore coral reefs 5]!  Watch the video below to understand more about corals and coral reefs!

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**Distribution and habitats**
//Pocillopora acuta// is widely distributed from the Central Pacific to the Indian ocean, including Singapore 6, 7]. It is common on Singapore's reefs 8], intertidal areas of southern shores, and artificial substrates such as seawalls 9] and pontoons 10].



=Biology and ecology=

**Feeding **
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The [|autotrophic] zooxanthellae [|photosynthesizes] and supplies photosynthetically fixed carbon to the [|heterotrophic] Cnidarian host, while the host provides nutrients such as inorganic nitrogen, phosphorous and shelter in a high light environment 1]. The cnidarian hosts are capable of feeding on a range of food sources including dissolved organic matter, suspended particulate matter, and zooplankton 11, 12, 13]. The main feeding method utilized by corals is via the use of tentacles 1]. The [|nematocysts] (needle like sting) in the cnidocytes (sting carrying cells) of the coral tentacles immobilize the prey, while the prey is deposited directly into the mouth or onto the mucus around the oral disk by tentacular contraction and folding towards the polyp 14].

**Coral bleaching and mass bleaching events **
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[|Coral bleaching] is when coral polyps release the symbiotic algae that live inside their tissue or the [|photosynthetic pigments] (like chlorophyll) within the algae, making the corals paler, lighter, and sometimes even completely white 15]. This can be due to many different disturbances or factors working together and/or independently. Bleaching is primarily thought to be due to an increase in water temperature (exceeding local summer maximum by 0.5-1.5°C) 16] and increased solar irradiance 15]. Other causes include reduced water temperature, high sedimentation, bacterial infections, salinity changes and even pollutants 15]. While corals can continue to survive, prolonged exposure to these conditions might results in the coral polyps dying and decaying, leaving their calcium carbonate skeletons behind. When this occurs over large geographic scales, it is known as [|mass bleaching events]. 3 major pantropical mass bleaching events are thought to have occured in 1998, 2010 and 2015 17]. Another recent mass-bleaching in 2017 affected nearly two-thirds of the [|Great Barrier Reef] 18].

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**Microhabitat for other animals **


//Pocillopora// corals are known to be home to small animals like crabs and shrimps living within their branches. The red coral crab (//Trapezia cymodoce//) receive protection from predators as well as food source (coral mucous) while it helps clean the coral by removing excess sediment 19].

**Reproduction **
//Pocillopora acuta // are [|hermaphroditic] 20], meaning they possess both male and female sexual organs. It is able to reproduce using sexual spawning or asexual brooding, [|budding] and even [|fragmentation]. Brooding is where eggs develop to free swimming larvae known as [|planula] in [|gastrovascular cavity] of parent polyp, while sexual spawning is where eggs and sperms are released into the water column where fertilization and development occurs 21]. It is thought that a mixed mode of reproduction consisting of asexual brooding and sexual spawning is a [|synapomorphic] (or shared novel character) for the [|monophyletic] group containing //P. damicornis, // //<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,Times,serif; font-size: 16px;">P. aliciae, // //<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,Times,serif; font-size: 16px;">P. acuta //<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,Times,serif; font-size: 16px;"> which originated from a shift in its reproductive strategy (i.e. from ancestral spawning to mixed mode of asexual brooding and sexual spawning) 6]. It is known to brood monthly in Singapore, just before or after the new moon 22].

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=Significance=

Ecosystem services and function
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Corals like //Pocillopora acuta// make up coral reef systems in the central Pacific to the Indian Ocean 7], but why should we care what happens to coral reefs? Watch the video below to find out!

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<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Coral reefs are incredibly important ecosystems, providing vital [|ecosystem services and functions] estimated to be worth up to 2,129,122 $/hectare/year 23]. This includes fisheries where coral reefs serve as habitat and nuseries for many commercial species of fish, novel biochemical compounds such as anti-cancer drugs, coastal protection against storms and erosion, tourism, and materials such as sand 24]. Watch the video to see how [|Parrotfish] turn corals into the sand that form our beaches and use for building material!

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=Threats=

Climate change
<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 12pt;">With the onset of climate change, scientists predict that coral reefs are expected to experience not only more frequent but also more intense bleaching events 17]. Corals not only have to face the effects of rising average ocean temperature but increasing [|ocean acification] due to rise in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The ability of corals to [|adapt] and or [|acclimitize] to these changes are thought to be crucial for their survival 25].

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<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Blast fishing
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[|Blast fishing or dynamite fishing] is the illegal practice where explosives are used to kill or stun fish while simultaneously destroying the underlying coral reef habitat which is comprised of corals like //Pocillopora acuta// that supports the fish. This reduces the structural complexity of the reef or reduces the number of [|microhabitats] for different animals to grow, live and settle among 26].

<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 16px;">Coastal modification, land reclamation, and dredging
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Land reclamation, coastal modification and the related process of dredging is highly destructive to coral reefs as it may involve the removal of substratum and associated organisms from the seabed and subsequent burial of any survivng organisms by sediment deposition 27]. This also increases the turbidity in the water due to increased sedimentation, allowing for less sunlight for photosynthesis. Furthermore, corals require energy to remove/reject sediment covering it, leaving less energy available for for growth, reproduction and competition 28]. Watch the video below to see how corals reject sediments! In Singapore between 1920s and 1990s, there was a pronounced lost of natural coastline dropping from 98% to 40% resulting in the reduction of nearly half the coral reef area (from 32 <span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;; font-size: 16px;">km2 to 17 km2) and intertidal sand/mudflat area (33 km2 to 8 km2) 29]. This reduction is projected to continue in the future 30].

Pollution, eutrophication and phase shifts
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Pollution such as sediment and nutrient run off, [|eutrophication] often lead to the degradation of coral reef ecosystems. [|Eutrophication] is the enrichment of water bodies with excess nutrients. It leads to enhanced macroalgal growth and when there is unusually low rates rates of herbivory, possibly a phase shift of the coral reef from a coral dominated state to a macroalgal state 31]. The change is often, but not necessarily always associated with perturbations such as mass coral bleaching and mortality, outbreaks of coral eating species, or even storm damage 32].

= Taxonomy and systematics =

<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times,serif; font-size: 125%;">Description and morphology
Description is from a study by Poquita-Du et al., 2017 7]



<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Colonial, densely[| caespitose]; branches typically round in cross section, but may become flattened at the tips, which are usually sharply pointed. Branches of colonies in exposed sites thicken and have smaller spacing between branches, while those in sheltered sites are elongate and slender. Calices typically oval, with the small diameter ranging between 0.6 and 0.8 mm, and the large diameter between 1.0 and 1.2 mm. Columellae flat. Septa poorly developed, in two equal cycles; 12 septa per corallite. Coenosteum with fine spinules. Living colony pale-greenish in colour with characteristic darker pigmentation surrounding oral opening of polyps.

**Type Information**
<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">A type specimen refers to a specimen or a group of specimens that functions as the reference to all defining characteristics of that species, to which a species (scientific) name is officially attached to.



<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">The [|holotype] for Pocillopora acuta resides in the Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle de in Paris, France (MNHN-IK-2010-792). The type locality is the Indian Ocean 6].

<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,Times,serif; font-size: 21.125px;">Classification
<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Binomial name: //Pocillopora acuta// Lamarck, 1816

<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Order: Scleractinia Family: Pocilloporidae Genus: //Pocillopora// From: [|World Register of Marine Species (WoRMS)]
 * **T**<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">axonomic Hierachy ||  ||
 * <span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Kingdom || <span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Animalia ||
 * <span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Phylum || <span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Cnidaria ||
 * <span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Class || <span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Anthozoa ||
 * <span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Subclass || <span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Hexacorallia ||
 * <span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Order || <span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Scleractinia ||
 * <span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Family || <span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Pocilloporidae ||
 * <span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Genus || //<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Pocillopora // ||
 * <span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Species || <span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">//Pocillopora acuta// Lamarck, 1816 ||
 * <span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Species || <span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">//Pocillopora acuta// Lamarck, 1816 ||

**<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,Times,serif; font-size: 17.3225px;">Synonyms **
//<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Pocillopora apiculata //<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Ehrenberg, 1834 //<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Pocillopora bulbosa //<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Ehrenberg, 1834 //<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Pocillopora caespitosa //<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Dana, 1846 //<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Pocillopora damicornis bulbosa //<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Ehrenberg, 1834 //<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Pocillopora subactua //<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Milne Edwards, 1860 (from [|http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=759099)]

Species delimitation
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">[|What defines a species], or what is considered a [|species]is often debated among scientists and taxonomists 33]. This issue might be further complicated by the problem of a [|species complex], where closely related species are very similar in appearance to the point that boundaries between them are unclear. This may lead to errors in biological diversity estimates, confusing or misleading interpretations of ecological and evolutionary data 34].

<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">The study by Schmidt-Roach et al., (2014) 6] formally revised species in the //Pocillopora damicornis// [|species complex] within the genus //Pocillopora// into 5 different species (//P. damicornis, P. acuta, P. aliciae, P. brevicornis, P. bairdi//). As corals are known to display extreme [|phenotypic plasticity] (including corals from the genus //Pocillopora//) 35] and/or instances of [|hybridization] along the geneological history of the species might prevent the use of conventional [|species concepts] 36, 37], the study used the 'Unified Species Concept' (USC) 38] in delineating valid taxonomic units.

<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">The USC assumes species are represented by separately evolving metapopulations and are assessed based on the synergistic use of criteria associated with previously accepted species concepts. Each criterion therefore represents an independent component in a global line of evidence to support species formation 38]. T <span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,Times,serif; font-size: 16px;">he intention for the use of USC is that the debate is shifted from species definition to the reliability, relevance of particular data in delimiting species 38]. <span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Some criticisms of this species concept include the fact that is that <span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,Times,serif; font-size: 16px;"> there is no clear definition how this 'synergistic use of criteria of previously accepted species concepts' is judged. In addition, <span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;; font-size: 16px;"> the use of different previously accepted species concepts as criteria may result in ambiguous or conflicting results as it is possible when using the same data, to reach different conclusions of different number of species when using different species concepts 50]. <span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,Times,serif; font-size: 16px;">This might prove to be problematic as species are thought to be <span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;; font-size: 16px;">complex things, with their identity dependent on the methodologies used to diagnose them and on the many different ways that organisms have of belonging to a species 49].

<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">The USC is similar to the evolutionary species concept in that the general concept of species as separately evolving metapopulation lineages. That is the only defining (necessary) property of a species and the other properties that created incompatibilities among alternative species concepts are subject to consideration 38].

<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 12pt;">The revision was completed after <span style="color: #2a2a2a; font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 12pt;">consideration of all available information including those from previous studies to assess species integrity for each candidate species including molecular phylogenies, gross- and fine-scale morphology, and where obtainable or known, reproductive 39, 40] and symbiont differences 39, 41].

<span style="color: #2a2a2a; font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Symbiont differences - Does it really matter? <span style="color: #2a2a2a; font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Considering symbiont differences is particularly interesting as there has been conflicting studies. One study found species specificity of //Pocillopora// coral symbiosis to algae from different clades of //Symbiodinium// 41]. This was contradicted by another study which showed that flexibility in associations between //Pocillopora// corals and //Symbiodinium// limit the utility of symbiosis ecology in defining species 42]. This poses an interesting question, if symbiont differences do matter, how is this different for other animals? For example if there are differences in human microbiota, does this possibly give evidence for humans with striking differences in microbiota to be separate species? As such symbiont associations should be used cautiously to assess species limits especially since they have shown to be flexible in symbiosis.

Methods of species delimitation <span style="color: #2a2a2a; font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Molecular phylogenies were generated by MEGA4 using [|neighbour-joining] algorithm under the JC correction for the [|mitochondrial] ORF region with the <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #2a2a2a; font-family: Merriweather,serif; font-size: 16px;"> JC correction and 1000 bootstrap pseudo-replications. <span style="color: #2a2a2a; font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Network v4.5.1.6 was also used to examine genealogical relationships in the [|HSP70B] region using the median-joining algorithm. While gross morphology and shared morphological characteristics masked clear separation for some groups due to high levels of plasticity, fine-scale morphological variation (i.e. the shape and type of columella) differentiated between clades and proved to be useful tool in distinguishing between evolutionary relationships among genetic lineages (Figure 1)6]. Based on a multi-level approach combining all evidence (including molecular data from mitochondria ORF region, HSP70B region, reproductive, symbiont differences) and applying species criteria in synergy as proposed by USC, the study differentiated among the species in the genus //Pocillopora//.



Higher level phylogeny: Phylum
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">//Pocillopora acuta// belongs to the class [|Anthozoa] and subclass [|Hexacorallia] within the phylum [|Cnidaria]. Questions about the position of Hexacorallia and Anthozoa among the major Cnidarian taxa remain, with relationships varying depending on the use of nuclear, mitochondrial markers, and phylogenomic data (Figure 2) 43, 44, 45, 46]. The current, traditional and most widely accepted view supported by both morphological and molecular studies is that Hexacorallia is monophyletic. The dispute is mainly over the position of the tube anemones (order [|Ceriantharia]) with a study finding Ceriantharia as sister to all other anthozoans, rendering Hexacorallia paraphyletic. <span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Future phylogenetic studies with increased taxonomic sampling may help to resolve more detailed relationships and patterns of character evolution in this highly diverse group 46].



Higher level phylogeny: Order
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">In the past, during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries the study of Scleractinia taxonomy and systematics relied exclusively on macromorphological skeletal characteristics. This proved problematic as hard corals including //Pocillopora acuta// exhibit considerable morphological plasticity, driven in part by various ecological factors 35]. <span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">In recent years, the rise of molecular tools has challenged the morphology-based taxonomy of scleractinian corals, and contributed significantly to the understanding of coral phylogenetics and evolution. Nevertheless, the coral skeleton has been and continues to be essential morphological character used in scleractinian classification.The general consensus based on current knowledge is that the order Scleractinia comprises at least 30 clades that correspond to family-level groups (Figure 3) 47]. With Pocilloporidae being in the “robust” clade. Divergence between //Pocillopora// and the sister genera //Stylophora// and //Seriatopora// is thought to be based on the evolution of a different reproductive mode (Spawning versus brooding in //Stylophora// and //Seriatopora//) 48].



=References=

<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 12pt;">1. Muscatine, L., 1973. Nutrition of corals. Biology and geology of coral reefs, 2(1), pp.77-115.

<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 12pt;">2. Muscatine, L. and Porter, J.W., 1977. Reef corals: mutualistic symbioses adapted to nutrient-poor environments. Bioscience, 27(7), pp.454-460.

<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 12pt;">3. <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 16px;">Richmond, R.H., 1987. Energetics, competency, and long-distance dispersal of planula larvae of the coral Pocillopora damicornis. //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 16px;">Marine Biology //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 16px;">, //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 16px;">93 //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 16px;">(4), pp.527-533.

<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 16px;">4. Putnam, H.M. and Gates, R.D., 2015. Preconditioning in the reef-building coral Pocillopora damicornis and the potential for trans-generational acclimatization in coral larvae under future climate change conditions. Journal of Experimental Biology, 218(15), pp.2365-2372.

<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 12pt;">5. <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Ng, C.S.L., Toh, T.C. and Chou, L.M., 2016. Coral restoration in Singapore’s sediment-challenged sea. //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Regional Studies in Marine Science //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">, //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">8 //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">, pp.422-429. <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Brown, B.E., 1997. Coral bleaching: causes and consequences. //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Coral reefs //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">, //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">16 //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(5), pp.S129-S138.

<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 16px;">6. Schmidt-Roach, S., Miller, K.J., Lundgren, P. and Andreakis, N., 2014. With eyes wide open: a revision of species within and closely related to the Pocillopora damicornis species complex (Scleractinia; Pocilloporidae) using morphology and genetics. //<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 16px;">Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society //<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 16px;">, //<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 16px;">170 //<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 16px;">(1), pp.1-33.

7. <span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 16px;">Poquita-Du, R.C., Ng, C.S.L., Loo, J.B., Afiq-Rosli, L., Tay, Y.C., Todd, P.A., Chou, L.M. and Huang, D., 2017. New evidence shows that Pocillopora ‘Pocilloporadamicornis-like’corals in Singapore are actually Pocillopora acuta (Scleractinia: Pocilloporidae). //<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 16px;">Biodiversity data journal //<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 16px;">, (5).

8. <span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 16px;">Huang, D., Tun, K.P., Chou, L.M. and Todd, P.A., 2009. An inventory of zooxanthellate scleractinian corals in Singapore, including 33 new records. //<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 16px;">Raffles Bulletin of Zoology //<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 16px;">, //<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 16px;">22 //<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 16px;">, pp.69-80.

9. <span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 16px;">Ng, C.S.L., Chen, D. and Chou, L.M., 2012. Hard coral assemblages on seawalls in Singapore. //<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 16px;">Contributions to Marine Science //<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 16px;">, //<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 16px;">2012 //<span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;,serif; font-size: 16px;">, pp.75-79.

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