Pyrrosia+piloselloides

= //Pyrrosia piloselloides// (L.) M. Price = Dragon Scales/ Dragon's Scale Fern toc = 1. Introduction - Dragons in Singapore? Nope, just their scales! =

If you walk along roads or parks of Singapore, you will definitely walk past the dragon's s cales —  the green scales that cover the old trees trunks. They are actually a [|fern] species with scientific name, // Pyrrosia piloselloides, // and is one of the most common [|epiphytes] in Singapore [1]. They can be seen at the roadside , parks, and forests. Basically, it's all over Singapore! For anyone who had curious mind on what these plants were while walking along the roads, this web page will be an opportunity for you to know more about the Dragon's scale fern. Dragon's scale fern is just as cool as its name!

//Pyrrosia piloselloides// found on the roadside tree at NUS (left). Photo by Lee Saeyun. Photo of a dragon sculpture (right). Photo by [|George Reyes] from Flickr. Creative Commons.
 * [[image:fern.jpg]][[image:dragon.jpg width="659" height="453"]] ||

=1.1 Name= =1.1.1 Origin of the scientific name=

//Pyrrosia// is a greek word meaning "fire-colored" which is named after the orange-colored spores [3]. //Piloselloides// means "hawkweed-like" which could be due to it resembling the long rhizomes of [|hawkweed].

=1.1.2 Common names=

// Pyrrosia piloselloides // has common English and Malay names like Dragon's scale fern, Dragon scales, Sakat Ribu-Ribu, and Sisek naga [2]. The local names also mean dragon scales when they are translated into English.

= 2. Where can it be found? =


 * 2.1 Singapore **

// Pyrrosia piloselloides // are found in[| tropical], [|sub-tropical], or [|monsoonal] climate areas [2]. Singapore is one of its native countries and it can be commonly seen on old tree trunks of Singapore. They can be found almost anywhere there are trees. You can find them along the road, parks, and forest as well.


 * 2.2 Global **

media type="custom" key="28839768" align="left"

Global distribution of //Pyrrosia// // piloselloides //. Map created based on the data from Global Biodiversity Information Facility [4].

= 3. Identification = =3.1 [|Morphology]= //Pyrrosia pilosellodies// on the trunk of a palm (left).Photo by Lee Saeyun. White dots seen on the surface of sterile fronds represent stellate hairs (right). Photo by [|Kwan] (permission pending) // Pyrrosia piloselloides // has thin, long cable-like creeping [|rhizomes] (roots). Its [|fronds] (equivalent to leaves of other plants) are [|dimorphic]. Fertile fronds are much longer in length ranging from 4 cm to 16cm with [|stipe] (stalk) of about 1cm and distinct brown continuous [|sori] (aggregated [|sporangia]) along its margin of the lower surface. Sterile fronds are fleshy, oval in shape and with length ranging from 1cm to 7cm. Stipes which are also known as stalks are short or even absent in sterile fronds. All fronds are covered with white or brown [|stellate hairs] [5]. = = =3.2 Identification Key= Leaves large, bearing sporangia in clusters on their lower surface...leaves simple, generally with an entire undissected margin...Epiphytic, high-climbing or rock plants...Leaves covered below with white or brown stellate hairs...Sorus continuous, marginal [6].
 * [[image:editedlabelfern.JPG width="664" height="369"]] || [[image:stellatehair.JPG width="421" height="361"]] ||

The key to identify //Pyrossia// sp. can be found [|here] [7].

**4. Biology**

 media type="youtube" key="Fhk-Y0duNjg" width="560" height="315" Life cycle of Fern. Video from Youtube by [|educreations]
 * 4.1 Life History **

The life cycle of fern is divided into two phases: [|sporophytes] and [|gametophytes]. // Pyrrosia piloselloides //we find on the tree trunks are in their sporophyte phase. After [|meiosis], the unicellular spores which are in gametophyte stage are released. Spore of ferns is very light weighing less than 0.01mg [8]. When sporangia are dried, the spores are released and they can easily be dispersed by winds.

Fern spores gif (left). Video from Youtube by [|MartinMicroscope] Microscopic photo of // Pyrrosia piloselloides // spore (right). Photo by [|Wee Yeow Chin] (permission pending)

Once the heart-shaped [|prothallus] as seen below matures, it will release sperm and egg and result in fertilization where the zygote formed will develop into sporophytes.

Heart-shaped prothallus with [|antheridia] containing sperms. Photo by [|Wee Yeow Chin] (permission pending)

**4.2 Physiology - Crassulacean Acid metabolism(CAM) photosynthetic pathway** media type="youtube" key="xp6Zj24h8uA" width="560" height="315" CAM Plants. Video from Youtube by [|Khan Academy]

Species under //Pyrrosia// genus, including // Pyrrosia piloselloides // undergo [|CAM photosynthetic pathway] which is found in many succulent plants that are adapted to desert environments (eg. cacti). At night, the plant stores carbon dioxide. During the day, it closes[| stomata] and uses the stored carbon dioxide to carry out photosynthesis. CAM photosynthesis is seen as an adaptation by epiphytes. As the rhizomes of the epiphytes are exposed to the air, they are under constant threat of suffering drought stress. Through this photosynthetic pathway, the plants are able to reduce water loss during the day. // Pyrrosia piloselloides // was the first fern to be found to undergo CAM pathway in 1974 [9]. A study showed that // Pyrrosia piloselloides //is an obligate CAM plant which undergoes CAM pathway even when put under shady or humid environment. It had higher water use efficiency than other ferns undergoing [|C3 photosynthetic pathway] [10].

= 5. Ecology =

Photo of Dusky Broadbill decorating its nest using //Pyrrosia// // piloselloides. // Photo by CWK. (permission pending)

It is observed that // Pyrrosia sp. // tend to be the first colonizing epiphytes of a host tree which is also supported by the result from a study that it is common in urban areas which are more prone to disturbance[1,11]. // Pyrrosia piloselloides // has a [|commensal relationship] with its host tree where // Pyrrosia piloselloides // benefits by having a rooting site without harming the host tree. However, too much growth could lead to smothering of host tree or create favorable conditions for fungal growth on the host tree[11]. // Pyrrosia piloselloides // have[| mutualistic relationships] with other epiphytes as both epiphytes could provide each other with water and nutrient for their survival. Moreover, with its great abundance, birds use // Pyrrosia piloselloides // to camouflage with the surrounding environment. An example is Dusky Broadbill // (Corydon // sumatranus) which uses parts of // Pyrrosia piloselloides // to cover its nest to resemble the surrounding environment[12].

= = = 6. Medicinal Uses =

//Pyrrosia piloselloides// is used as traditional folk medicine in different countries to treat different conditions. In Malaysia, extract of the plant is consumed to treat cough, diarrhea, and gonorrhea. The leaf extract is also used in the form of lotion to be applied for small pox, eczema, or skin rashes [2,13].

Studies have shown that //Pyrrosia piloselloides// can potentially be used to inhibit breast cancer and also be used as [|antioxidant] as its extracts have shown [|cytotoxic activity][14]. It also showed antibacterial activities which could be potentially used as a treatment for Athlete's foot and other bacterial infections[15].

= 7. [|Taxonomy] & Systematics =

=7.1 Original Description= Description of //Pteris piloselloides// on pg.1530 of [|Species Plantarum] 2nd edition by Carl Linnaeus, 1762 - 63.


 * Basionym: //Pteris piloselloides// **

//Pyrrosia piloselloides w// as originally published in the book by Linnaeus in 1763 in another genus, //Pteris// [16]. The[| type] specimen was not indicated in Species Plantarum by Carl Linnaeus.

Genus // Drymoglossum // was established by Presl in1836 to accommodate // Pteris piloselloides //. However, later it was found out that the differences in character states between // Drymoglossum // and // Pyrrosia // genus were not enough to justify  the taxonomic recognition of a genus Drymoglossum separate from Pyrrosia [17]. ( Pyrrosia genus is a sister to a [|monophyletic] genus // Platycerium //[18].) The genus was then revised to present genus //Pyrrosia// by M. G. Price in Kalikasan 3: 176, 1974 [19].


 * 7.2 Synonyms **

Below is the list of [|synonyms]of // Pyrrosia piloselloides //[19].

//Drymoglossum piloselloides // (L.) C. Presl //Drymoglossum piloselloides // var. //platycerioides// Z. Teruya //Drymoglossum rotundifolium // C. Presl //Elaphoglossum piloselloides // (L.) Keyserl. //Lemmaphyllum piloselloides //<span style="color: #4f6228; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> (L.) Luerss. //<span style="color: #4f6228; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Notholaena piloselloides //<span style="color: #4f6228; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">(L.) Kaulf. ex Kaulf. //<span style="color: #4f6228; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Oetosis piloselloides //<span style="color: #4f6228; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> (L.) Kuntze //<span style="color: #4f6228; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Pteris piloselloides //<span style="color: #4f6228; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> L. //<span style="color: #4f6228; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Pteropsis piloselloides //<span style="color: #4f6228; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> (L.) Desv. //<span style="color: #4f6228; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Taenitis piloselloides //<span style="color: #4f6228; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> (L.) R. Br


 * 7.3 Classification **

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 1.066em;">Taxonavigation is as follows [19]. Ranks were not included in the[| classification] as they do not contain meaningful taxonomic information. [| Filicophyta] [| Polypodiopsida] [| Polypodiales] [| Polypodiaceae] // [| Pyrrosia] //
 * ==== [|Plantae] ====

// P. piloselloides //
||

= 8. [|Phylogeny] =

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Figure1. The[| evolution] of shoot development across land plants represented as a simple phylogenetic tree of extant land plants. Filled triangles represent [|monophyletic] clades, whereas [|bryophytes] clade is [|paraphyletic]. Broader clades used for reference in this review are defined by the green bars above the phylogeny. The purple and blue lines represent the characters and their locations represent when such characters were evolved. Diagram by Plackett., et al (2015) [20]. The [|cladogram] above shows a reconstructed evolutionary lineage of the extant land plants. Going down the lineage, the plants become more and more morphologically complex as it evolved from algae all the way down to flowering plants. Ferns are one of the important intermediate in the lineage which could possibly explain the evolutionary history of the plants. Monilophytes which includes fern has vascular tissues as one of the [|plesiomorphies](ancestral traits) while it developed lateral organs in fronds as an[| apomorphy] (derived trait) in sporophyte shoots. Ferns are the closest sister group to seed plants and further study could find out how plants have evolved from seedless plants to seed plants. Figure 2. The [|Maximum Likelihood] tree showing the currently recognized fern families. [|Bootstrap] support values greater than 50 are shown at nodes. The data set consisted of 2,957 taxa ( // rbcL // 2,681; // rps4 // 1,134; // atpB // 825; // atpA // 526 taxa) and 4,406 aligned base pairs of molecular data ( // rbcL // 1,332; // rps4 // 379; // atpB // 1,188; // atpA // 1,507 bp). Creative Commons.[21]

In the maximum likelihood model, subfamilies of Polypodiaceae were monophyletic. Hence, it suggests that further study with greater data could be done to delimit Polypodioideae.[21]

<span style="font-family: '맑은 고딕'; font-size: 10pt;">Figure3. The strict consensus tree of the three most parsimonious trees recovered from [|maximum parsimony] analyses of data set (98 [|polygrammoid] fern taxa and three chloroplast DNA loci (rbcL genes, rps4 genes, and rps4-trnS intergenic spacer) combined) [22].

The [|bayesian]value is 0.80 while the bootstrap value is 79. A Bootstrap value above 70 is as equivalent to having more than 95% of the clade being real. Hence, it can be safely deduced that the species is monophyletic [23]. (Bayesian values tend to overestimate its values. hence the value is not taken into account [24].) Based on the phylogenetic tree above, it is difficult to determine whether //Pyrossia// genus is monophyletic as not all //Pyrrosia// species were examined in this study. However, another study done on //Pyrossia// species showed that the genus is monophyletic [25]. This further supports the result above and that the //Pyrrosia piloselloides// is monophyletic.

=**8.1 [|DNA Barcode]**=

// Pyrrosia piloselloides // ribosomal protein small subunit 4-like protein (rps4) gene, partial chloroplast sequence can be found [|here] // Pyrrosia piloselloides // ribulose-1,5-biphosphate carboxylase large subunit (rbcL) gene sequence can be found [|here]

= 9. References =
 * # Izuddin, M., & Webb, E. L. (2015). The influence of tree architecture, forest remnants, and dispersal syndrome on roadside epiphyte diversity in a highly urbanized tropical environment. Biodiversity and Conservation, 24(8), 2063-2077.
 * 1) Flora and Fauna Web. (2013). //Pyrrosia// piloselloides (L.) M.G. Price. National Parks Board. URL: [](Assessed on 7 Nov 2016)
 * 2) Urban Forest. (2015). //Pyrrosia// // piloselloides // (L.) M.G. Price, Urban Forest: An Identification Guide to the Flora of Singapore and Southeast Asia, URL:[| http://uforest.org/Species/P/Pyrrosia_piloselloides.html.](Accessed on 8 Nov 2016)
 * 3) Global Biodiversity Information Facility. (2016) //Pyrrosia// // piloselloides // (L.) M.G. URL:[| http://www.gbif.org/species/5647918] (Accessed on 7 Nov 2016)
 * 4) Johnson, A. (1977). A student's Guide To The Ferns Of Singapore Island, // Singapore University Press //, 13: 48-49
 * 5) Johnson, A. (1977). A student's Guide To The Ferns Of Singapore Island, // Singapore University Press //, 13: 15-20
 * 6) Flora Malesiana. (n.d.) Key To The Species. URL: http://portal.cybertaxonomy.org/flora-malesiana...94cfe50d50 (Accessed on 7 Nov 2016)
 * 7) Klaus Mehltreter, Lawrence R. Walker, & Joanne M. Sharpe, (2010), Fern Ecology, // Cambridge University Press //, 1: 7-12
 * 8) Hew, C.S. & Wong, Y.S. (1974). Photosynthesis and respiration of ferns in relation to their habitats. // Am // erican // Fern Journal, // 64: 40-48
 * 9) Kluge,M. ,Avadhani, P.N. & Goh, C.J.(1989). Gas exchange and water relations in epiphytic tropical ferns. // Vascular Plants as Epiphytes, // ed. U. Luttege . Heidelberg, Germany: // Springer-Verlag // : 87-108
 * 10) Yong, J.W.H, Khew Y.T, Rong, S.C., Wei, J.W., Wong, W.S., (2015), A Guide to the Common Epiphytes and Mistletoes of Singapore, // National Parks Board, // 1: 56-58
 * 11) Bird Ecology Study Group. (2009) Dusky Broadbill and dragon's scale fern, URL: [] (Accessed on 8 Nov 2016)
 * 12) StuartxChange. (2015) Pagong -Pagongan, URL: [|http://www.stuartxchange.org/Pagong-pagongan.html](Accessed on 7 Nov 2016)
 * 13) Wulandari, E. T., Elya, B., Hanani, E., & Pawitan, J. A. (2013). In vitro antioxidant and cytotoxicity activity of extract and fraction //Pyrrosia// piloselloides<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"> (L) MG Price. International Journal of PharmTech Research, 5(1), 119-125.
 * 14) Somchit, M. N., Hassan, H., Zuraini, A., Chong, L. C., Mohamed, Z., & Zakaria, Z. A. (2011). In vitro anti-fungal<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"> and anti-bacterial <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"> activity of //Drymoglossum// // piloselloides //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"> L. Presl. against several fungi responsible for Athletes <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"> foot and common pathogenic bacteria. African Journal of Microbiology Research, 5(21), 3537-3541.
 * 15) Biodiversity Heritage Library. (n.d). Species Plantarum (ed. 2). URL:[|http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/11834916#page/747/mode/1up] (Accessed on 5 Nov 2016)
 * 16) Ravensberg, W. J., & Hennipman, E. (1986). The Pyrrosia species formerly referred to Drymoglossum and Saxiglossum (Filicales, Polypodiaceae). //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">Leiden Botanical Series //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">, //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">9 //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">(1), 281-310.
 * 17) Kreier, H. P., & Schneider, H. (2006). Phylogeny and biogeography of the staghorn fern genus Platycerium (Polypodiaceae, Polypodiidae). //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">American Journal of Botany //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">, //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">93 //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">(2), 217-225.
 * 18) Hassler M. (2016). World Ferns: Checklist of Ferns and Lycophytes of the World (version Nov 2015). In: Species 2000 & ITIS Catalogue of Life, 2016 Annual Checklist (Roskov Y., Abucay L., Orrell T., Nicolson D., Flann C., Bailly N., Kirk P., Bourgoin T., DeWalt R.E., Decock W., De Wever A., eds). Digital resource at www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-checklist/2016. Species 2000: Naturalis, Leiden, the Netherlands. ISSN 2405-884X.
 * 19) Plackett, A. R., Di Stilio, V. S., & Langdale, J. A. (2015). Ferns: the missing link in shoot evolution and development. //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">Frontiers in plant science //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">, //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">6 //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">.
 * 20) Lehtonen, S. (2011). Towards resolving the complete fern tree of life. //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">PLoS One //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">, //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">6 //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">(10), e24851.
 * 21) Schneider, H., Smith, A. R., Cranfill, R., Hildebrand, T. J., Haufler, C. H., & Ranker, T. A. (2004). Unraveling the phylogeny of polygrammoid ferns (Polypodiaceae and Grammitidaceae): exploring aspects of the diversification of epiphytic plants. //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">Molecular phylogenetics and evolution //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">, //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">31 //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">(3), 1041-1063.
 * 22) <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">Hillis, D. M., & Bull, J. J. (1993). An empirical test of bootstrapping as a method for assessing confidence in phylogenetic analysis. //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">Systematic biology //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">, //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">42 //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">(2), 182-192.
 * 23) <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">Simmons, M. P., Pickett, K. M., & Miya, M. (2004). How meaningful are Bayesian support values?. //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">Molecular Biology and Evolution //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">, //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">21 //<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">(1), 188-199 t
 * 24) <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">Choi, T.Y., & Park, C.W. (2015). A phylogeny of //Pyrrosia// Mirb. (Polypodiaceae) inferred from chloroplast DAN sequences. Seoul National University. ||