Balanus+Amphitrite

=** Purple Acorn Barnacle (//Balanus amphitrite//) **= toc

What are barnacles? ‘‘//A animal fixed by its head and kicking the food into its mouth with its legs//” T.H. Huxley ( English biologist, 1825 -1925)

General name
**English**: barnacle **Chinese**: 藤壶 **Malay**: teritip **Arabic**: البَرْنَقيل **Japanese**: ふじつぼ

General characteristics



 * ===-they are crustaceans ===
 * belong to the same group of animals (Subphylum Crustacea) including crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill (Solomon //et al//, 2008). All of them possess:
 * two-parted (biramous) appendages
 * **segmented** body parts: head, thorax and abdomen
 * larval (**naplius**) stage in their life cycle
 * **calcareous** shell: wall plates for barnacles, carapace for crabs and other crustaceans
 * shell for protection, prevent dessication and communication (some crustaceans)


 * ===-termed cirripeds ===
 *  found in Infraclass //Cirripedia//. //Cirri// in Latin, means "curled'', //-pedia//means legs (Solomon //et al//, 2008).



 Types of Barnacles

 * ===-have different adult forms ===
 * **acorn** or rock barnacles (Order Sessila)
 * **gooseneck** or stalked barnacles (Order Pedunculata)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">**parasitic** barnacles (Superorder Rhizocephala)

Reproduction and Life History

 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">-mostly hermaphrodites ===
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">possess both male and female reproductive organs (Charnov, 1987).
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">allow self-fertilization to produce offspring when there are no other barnacles nearby (<span class="wiki_link_ext">Barnes & Crisp, 1956 )
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">if two barnacles happen to be close to one another, one will protrude a long penis into the other barnacle (pictured as below)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;"> penises can extend up to eight times its own //body// length (Darwin, 1854)
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">have the highest penis to body length ratio amongst all animals (<span class="wiki_link_ext">Neufeld & Palmer, 2009 )
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">different gender individuals are thought to be evolved from hermaphrodite ancestors ( <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Charnov, 1987 ;<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;"><span class="wiki_link_ext"> University of Pittsburg, 2011)




 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">- different life stages in a life cycle ===
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">metamorphic life cycle (Zvyagintsev & Korn, 2003)
 * starts out as a free-swimming larva, called a //nauplius//, undergoes six stages of naupliar growth;
 * grows a pair of shells around its body now called a //cypris// larva;
 * head of cypris larva attaches itself permanently to a hard structure;
 * cypris now sessile, starts to develop into an adult: It casts off its shells and begins to secrete several calcareous plates;
 * adult barnacle now releases barnacle glue




 * ===<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">-adult attaches to hard substratum with cement-like secretion ===
 * similiar to the proteins of humans blood clot (platelets) <span class="wiki_link_ext">(Dickinson et al, 2009 )
 * protein fibres released from cement ductsjunctions) between base-plate and wall/lateral plates
 * Factor XII that induces release of platelet also found in barnacles

Feeding Habits

 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">feed when submerged or exposed to water (during high tides)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">operculum opens and cirri exposed capture food
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">cirri retract into shell and operculum is closed when not exposed to water (exposed to air during low tide)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">**capture prey** by grabbing or filtering small particles
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">uses feet-like appendages (cirri) which are attached to their limbs
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">cirri placed perpendicular to the direction of water currents
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">**grabbing**: cirri swiped in and out of oral cavity at high velocity, 'grabbing' food particles in a repetitive manner (Crisp & Southward, 1961).
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">**filtering**: when water current is slow, cirri are placed above the oral cavity (at different directions) similar to a mesh trap, retraction of cirri into oral cavity is slow (Crisp & Southward, 1961).
 * **<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">General Food Chain **
 * feed on small and micro-sized particles e.g. bacteria, plankton, waste nutrients, etc.
 * being predated by gastropods (snails and slugs ) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">and other crustaceans (e.g. crabs)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">dog whelks (// Nucella lapillus //) are carnivorous sea snails
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">use special drilling mouth parts (radula) to bore through the shells of barnacles (<span class="wiki_link_ext">Largen, 1967 )
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;"> digestive enzymes are injected through the hole and the resulting liquid food sucked
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">crabs: use larger pincers to crab the wall plates of barnacles and feed on them (Watch video below)

media type="youtube" key="rTMa5iWCEg8" width="425" height="350" align="center"

<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%; text-align: center;">Video showing a red crab (// Gecarcoidea natalis //) feeding on barnacles underwater. Video courtesy of [|Youtube user (tigertensing)]

Habitat Range & Distribution

 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">only in marine environments: intertidal regions (beaches, mangroves, rocky shores), some deep water species
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">attachment on any hard substratum including rocks, tree trunks, floating debris, buoys, ship hulls, etc. Some specialist species attach on turtles and whales
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">worldwide distribution
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">**In Singapore:**
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">all coastal areas on mainland and offshore islands
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">various species (Jones et al, 2000)

<span style="color: #800080; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Biofouling

 * <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;"> [|biofouling]: undesirable and gregarious <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">attachment on objects
 * <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">barnacles fouling found on
 * <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">many human structures (buoys, ship hulls, harbors stilts, etc.)
 * <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">debris (both floating and non-floating)
 * <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">floating debris <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">poses threat to introduction of exotic species (by ocean circulation to remote islands and shores around the world <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;"> (Hansen, 1990)

= =

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%; text-align: left;">Charles Darwin's study on the Purple Acorn Barnacle

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #800080; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">(1) Description of //Balanus amphitrite//


<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%; text-align: center;">"//Shell longitudinally striped with purple or pink; sometimes with the stripes confluent; sometimes wholly white.// <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%; text-align: center;">//Scutum internally with a prominent broad adductor ridge//"
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;"> Charles Darwin (1854) studied barnacles and their taxonomy for eight years from 1846 to 1854.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Initially described //Balanus amphitrite// as multivariate species
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;"> named //B. amphitrite// and identified other nine varieties namely //Balanus amphitrite// var. //communis//, //venustus, pallidus, niveus, modestus, stutsburi, obscurus, variegatus,// and //cirratus//.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">All of them shared the following morphological and anatomical characteristics of the following:



> > == ==
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">After Darwin, other scientists found some of the varieties to be of the same species
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">supports Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection ; 'no two individuals in a species are morphologically alike'

(2) Description of Distribution

 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Darwin (1854) found B. amphitrite to be commonly found in **warmer temperate areas: tropical seas** and **intertidal areas**.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">extremely common; Mediterranean, Smyrna(now Izmir, Turkey), Sicily (Italy), Coast of Portugal, West Coast of Africa, River Gambia, West Indies, Demerara (now Guyana), (Kwa-Zulu) Natal (South Africa), Madagascar, Red Sea, Mouth of the Indus(Indus River mouth), Ceylon(now Sri Lanka), Philippine Archipelago, East Indian Archipelago, Pacific Ocean, east coast of Australia, New Zealand; extremely common on ships' bottoms; often attached to floating timber, canes
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Often associated with //B. tintinnabulum;// attached to pebbles and various shells

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Refer to '**Species Distribution'** and **'Invasion**' segments below for further information of this species' distribution

//<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">For further reading of Charles Darwin's study on barnacles, please read his monograph [|here.]<span class="wiki_link_ext">Refer to page 240 of the monograph for Charles Darwin's description of Balanus amphitrite. //

<span style="color: #800080; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Origin of Name (Etymology)
>>
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">**Scientific (Binomial) Name**: //Balanus amphitrite// Darwin 1854 (= //Amphibalanus amphitrite// Pitombo 2004)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">//Balanus// = chestnut or acorn in Latin (Da Costa,1778)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">//amphitrite//= wife of King Poseidon in Greek Mythology; goddess of the oceans
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Revision of genus name from //Balanus// to //Amphibalanus//, now known as //Amphibalanus amphitrite// (Pitombo, 2004)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">//Amphibalanus// is combinition of terms //amphitrite// and //balanus//
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">revision due to introduction of new monophyletic g //Amphibalanidae// from original //Balanidae//
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">**Old Scientific (Binomial) Synyonyms**: <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">Lepas radiata (Woods, 1815)

>
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">**Vernacular Names**: striped barnacle, the purple acorn barnacle and Amphitrite's rock barnacle
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;"> ‘striped barnacle’ because its wall plates have longitidunal coloured striation
 * <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">**Current Status of Scientific Name**
 * <span style="color: #231f20; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">usage of //Barnacle amphitrite// still exist (Clare & Hoeg, 2008; Carlton & Newman, 2010).
 * <span style="color: #231f20; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Clare and Hoeg (2008) supported retention of //B. amphitrite// due to “scarce” referencing of //A. amphitrite,// and outright critism of Pitombo (2004)’s methology of phylogenetic revision.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;"> Carlton & Newman (2010), refuted such claims stating that names changes, especially to non-systematists is often slow and does not reflect rejection from the scientific community and supports Pitombo’s revision.

<span class="WikiAnchor" style="color: #800080; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Diagnosis
//Balanus amphitrite// tends to be confused with //Balanus reticulatus//
 * ** Simple Identification (for non-taxonomists **)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Not accurate due to morphological variation and habitat variation
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Simple terminologies adapted from Chan //et al// (2009)

<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%; text-align: center;">**//(= Amphibalanus reticulatus)//** || <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%; text-align: center;">**//Balanus reticulatus//** <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%; text-align: center;">**//(= Amphibalanus reticulatus)//** ||
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%; text-align: center;">**//Balanus reticulatus//**
 * [[image:BR.jpg width="257" height="240" align="center" caption="Picture taken with permission from Leong Chin RIkc"]] || [[image:BA.jpg align="center" caption="Picture taken with permission from Leong Chin Rick"]] ||
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: center;">Brown and thin-line striations || <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: center;">Purple and thick-line striations ||
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: center;">Transverse striations across wall plates || <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: center;">No transverse striations across wall plates ||
 * <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: center;">Rough wall plates || <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: center;">Smooth wall plates ||


 * __**<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Specific Identification (for taxonomists) **__
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">accurate but requires microscopy skills to identification
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Kindly refer to [|Fox's Guide to Invertebrate Anatomy Online] for reference of morphological terms of a Balanomorph barnacle.)

<span style="color: #231f20; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">**Shell**: Wall of six plates, smooth; parietes with a single row of tubes with or without transverse septa; radii solid, transverse teeth on sutural edge with denticles on lower side only (Pitombo, 2004;Chan et al, 2009).

<span style="color: #231f20; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">**Basal surface:**Basis tubiferous, tubes in a single layer(Pitombo, 2004;Chan et al, 2009).

<span style="color: #231f20; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">**Operculum**: Scutum with a conspicuous adductor ridge. Tergum with spur having abrupt change in the direction of growth lines, with spur and furrow margins coincident, basal margin with well-developed depressor muscle crests projecting beyond border (Pitombo, 2004;Chan et al, 2009).

<span style="color: #231f20; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">**Oral appendages**: Second maxilla with anterior margin of distal lobe having smooth, acuminate setae with enlarged and modified tips.((Pitombo, 2004;Chan et al, 2009).

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;"> **Cirri (feet-like appendages)**: Cirrus III with inner face of endopod with pinnate setae rarely with bifurcate (complex) setae. Cirri IV-VI with erect hooks below posterior angles of distal articles of rami ( <span style="color: #231f20; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Pitombo, 2004;Chan et al, 2009).



<span style="color: #800080; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 19.2px;">**Species Distribution**
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">widely distributed (cosmopolitan) tropical and subtropical species (Newman & Ross, 1976)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">in subtropical areas, B. occurs abundantly in the intertidal zone of sheltered coasts, usually below the mean seawater level
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">occurs intertidally, often in brackish waters (Henry & Mclaughin, 1975)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">able to withstand low salinity levels (Southward,1975; Utinomi, 1960)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">often abundant in habitats exposed to physical stress and pollution, including oil covered areas (Lipkin & Safriel, 1971)




 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">//Balanus amphitrite// was found to be originated from the Southwestern Pacific and Indian Oceans from discovery its fossils (Zullo 1963).
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">found in Singapore as well (Jones et al, 2000).

<span style="color: #800080; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Invasion

 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">expected to be confined to warm and tropical waters but found to be [|invasive] in several colder and temperate countries including
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;"><span class="wiki_link_ext">Northern America [|(United States of America)],
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Southern America (Argentina)(Oresanz //et al//., 2002)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Europe (Germany, Belgium) (Wiegemann, 2008; Kerckhof, 2002)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Northeast Asia (Japan and Hong Kong) (Qiu, 1999)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Oceania (Australia ands New Zealand) (Foster, 1978)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">invasion may come about from biofouling on ship hulls and floating debris travelling around oceans (Lulito, 2007)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Current IUCN ( //International Union for Conservation of Nature// ) Threat Status: Unknown

<span style="color: #800080; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Interspecies Competition

 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">[|Interspecies competition]: individuals of //different// species compete for the same resource(e.g. food, living space) in an ecosystem.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Between //Balanus amphitrite// and polychaete worm (marine worm //Pomatoleios kraussii)//
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">heavy mortality of //B. amphitrite// is associated with high density of //P. kraussii// in same area of attachment (Mohammad, 1975)



<span style="color: #800080; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Taxonavigation
//<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">(Definition of 'taxonavigation': click [|here]) //

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Kingdom [|Animalia] -- Animal, animals, animaux <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Phylum [|Arthropoda] -- arthropodes, arthropods, Artrópode <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Subphylum[| Crustacea] Brünnich, 1772 – crustace, crustáceo, crustacés <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Class [|Maxillopoda] Dahl, 1956 <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Subclass[| Thecostraca] Gruvel, 1905 <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Infraclass[| Cirripedia] Burmeister, 1834 -- barnacles, bernacles <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Superorder[| Thoracica] Darwin, 1854 -- barnacles <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Order[|Sessilia] Lamarck, 1818 -- sessile barnacles <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Suborder [|Balanomorpha] Pilsbry, 1916 -- acorn barnacles <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Superfamily [|Balanoidea] Leach, 1817 <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Family [|Balanidae] Leach, 1817/ Amphibalanidae Pitombo, 2004) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Genus [|Balanus] Da Costa, 1778 /Amphibalanus Pitombo, 2004) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Species Amphitrite Darwin, 1854

<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Classification adapted from <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">[|ITIS] and Pitombo (2004).

<span style="color: #800080; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Type Information

 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Type (in Biology): a specific specimen or group of specimens of an organism to which the scientific name of that organism is formally identified as.
 * <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 17.3333px;">The reason for such designation is to avoid a confusion about applying names if someone revises the genus or species.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Darwin did not designate type specimen (and a holotype) for //B. amphitrite// and its varieties (Yamaguchi, 1980)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Harding (1962) assigned lectotypes ( lectotype: a specimen chosen as the type of a species or subspecies if the original author of the name fails to designate a type ) for Darwin’s dried specimens
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">lectotype was originally found on a piece of bamboo (Registration No. :B. M. 40.9.15.17, locality Natal (South Africa), Dr. Krauss)
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">lectotype was dissected, now kept separately as:
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;"> remaining shell on the bamboo registered as B.M. 1961. 12. 6. 1c
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">mounted operculum valve as B.M. 1961.12.6. 1a
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">animal parts as B.M. 1961.12.6. 1b (Harding, 1962).

=<span style="color: #800080; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Link to Other Species Pages =

<span style="color: #800080; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">[|Marine Species]

<span style="color: #800080; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">[|Exotics Guide]

<span style="color: #800080; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">[|Sea Life Base]

<span style="color: #800080; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">[|Encylopedia of Life]

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">[|Cirripedia My Species]

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">[|Introduced Marine Species of Hawaii]

=<span style="color: #800080; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Literature and References =

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Anderson, D. T. 1980. Barnacles - structure, function, development and evolution. Chapman and Hall London. 357 pp.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;"> //Barnes//, H. & D.J. //Crisp//, 1956. Evidence of self-fertilization in certain species of barnacles. //J. Mar. Biol//, **144**: 235-239.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Chan, B.K.K., Prabowo, R.E and Lee, K.S. (2009), Crustacean fauna of Taiwan: Barnacles, Volume I- Cirripedia: Thoracica excluding the //Pyrgomatidae// and //Acastinae//. National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung. 297pp.

<span style="color: #231f20; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Charnov, E.L. 1987. Sexuality and hermaphroditism in barnacles: a natural selection approach. In Southward A.J. (ed.) Crustacean issues 5, Barnacle biology. Rotterdam: A.A. Balkema, pp. 89–104.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Clare, A.S. & Høeg. J.T. 2008. “Balanus amphitrite or Amphibalanus amphitrite? A note on barnacle nomenclature.” //Biofouling// **24**(1): 55-7.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Computer Generated Map for //Balanus amphitrite// (un-reviewed). www.aquamaps.org, version of Aug. 2010. Web. Accessed 14 Nov. 2011.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Crisp, D. J. & A. J. Southward, 1961. Different types of cirral activity of barnacles. //Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., Scr. B//, 243 : 271-307.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Darwin, C. R. 1854. //Living Cirripedia, The Balanidæ, (or sessile cirripedes); the Verrucidæ//. London: The Ray Society. Volume 2 [|Text] [|Image] [|Text & image] F339.2

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Dickinson, G. H.,Vega, I.E., Wahl, K. J., Orihuela, B., Beyley, V., Rodriguez, E.N., Everett, R. K., Bonaventura, J. & D. Rittschof, 2009. Barnacle cement: a polymerization model based on evolutionary concepts, //Journal of Experimental Biology//, **212**(21): 3499-3510.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Foster, B.A. 1978. The marine fauna of New Zealand: Barnacles (Cirripedia, Thotacica). Memoirs of the New Zealand Oceanographic Institute 69: 1-160.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Hansen, J. 1990. Draft position statement on plastic flotsam in marine environments. //Fisheries//. 15: 16–17.

<span class="st" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Harding J. P. 1962. Darwin's type specimens of varieties of //Balanus amphitrite//. //Bull. Br. (Natn Hist.) Zool.//, **9**(7): 273-296

<span class="st" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Henry, D. P. & Mclaughlin, P. A. 1975. The barnacles of the. Balanus amphitrite complex (Cirripedia, Thoracica). Zoologische. //Verhandelingen//, 141, 1–254

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;"> Jones, D.S, Hewitt, M. A. & A. Sampley. 2000. A Checklist Of The Cirrepedia of South China Sea. Raffles Buletin of Zoology. 8: 203-307.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Kerckhof, F. (2002). Barnacles (Cirripedia, Balanomorpha) in Belgian waters, an overview of the species and recent evolutions, with emphasis on exotic species. //Bull. Kon. Belg. Inst. Natuurwet. Biologie,// **72**//(Suppl.)//: 93-104

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">LaBarbera, M. 1984. "Feeding currents and particle capture mechanisms in suspension feeding animals". //American Zoologist//, **24** (1): 71–84.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Largen, M. J. 1967. The diet of the dog-whelk, //Nucella lapillus// (Gastropoda Prosobranchia). //Journal of Zoology//, **151**(1): 123-127

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Lulito, C. 2007. Distribution, abundance and reproduction of the Indo-Pacifric acorn barnacle Balanus amphitrite (Crustacea: Cirripedia). //J. Mar. Biol. Ass. U.K//., **87**: 723-727.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Lipkin, Y. & Safriel, U. 1971. Intertidal zonation on rocky shores at Mikhmoret (Mediterranean, Israel). //The Journal of Ecology//, **59**:1-30.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Lippson, A.J. & Lippson, R.L. 1984. //Life in the Chesapeake Bay//. Johns Hopkins University Press. 304pp.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;"><span class="gs_a"> Mohammad, M.B.M. 1975. Competitive Relationship Between //Balanus amphitrite// and //Pomatoleios kraussii//with Special Reference to their Larval Settlement. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">//Hydrobiologia//, **46**:1-15.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Neufeld, C. J. & A. R. Palmer. 2008. Precisely proportioned: intertidal barnacles alter penis form to suit coastal wave action. //Proceedings of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences,// **275**:1081-1087.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Newman, W. A. & Ross, A. 1976. Revision of the Balanomorph barnacles including a catalogue of the species. //San Diego Society of Natural History Memoirs//, **9**: 1–108.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Orensanz, J.M., Schwindt, E., Pastorino, G., Bortulas, A., Casas, G., Darrigan, G., Elías, R., Gappa, J.J.L., Obenat, S., Pascual, M., Penchaszadeh, P., Piriz, M.L., Scabarino, F., Spivak, E.D. and E.A. Vallarino. 2002. No longer the pristine confines of the world ocean: a survey of exotic marine species in the southwestern Atlantic. //Biological Invasions,// **4**: 115-143.

<span class="st" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;"> Pitombo, F. B. 2004. Phylogenetic analysis of the Balanidae (Cirripedia, Balanomorpha). Zoologica Scripta, **33**: 261–276.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Qiu, J.W. 1999. Tolerance of the barnacle //Balanus Amphitrite amphitrite// to salinity and temperature stress:effects of previous experience. //Marine Ecology Progress Series//. **188**: 123-132.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Rainbow, P.S. 1984. An introduction to the biology of British littoral barnacles. //Field Studies//, **6**: 1-51.

<span class="st" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Solomon, E., Berg, l. & Martin, D. 2008. //Biology//. 8th ed. Brooks/Cole Publishing. 1234p.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Southward, A.J. 1975. Intertidal and shallow water Cirripedia of the Caribbean. //Stud Fauna Curaqao Other Caribb Is1,// **46**: l-53.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">University of Pittsburgh (2008, November 20). Two From One: Evolution Of Genders From Hermaphroditic Ancestors Mapped Out. //ScienceDaily//. Retrieved November 15, 2011, from http://www.sciencedaily.com­/releases/2008/11/081120171328.htm

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Utinomi, H.1960. On the world-wide dispersal of a Hawaiian barnacle, //Balanus amphitrite hawaiiensis//. //Broch. Pac Sci,//**14**: 43-50.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Wiegemann, M. 2008. Wild cyprids metamorphosing in vitro reveal the presence of //Balanusamphitrite// Darwin, 1854 in the German Bight basin, //Aquatic Invasions//, **3**(2): 235-238.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Yamaguchi, T. 1980. A New Species Belonging to the //Balanus amphitrite// Darwin Group (Cirripedia, Balanomorpha).//Journal of Paleontology//, **54**(5): 1084-1101.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Zvyagintsev, Y.A., & O.M. Korn. 2003. Life history of the barnacle Balanus amphitrite Darwin and its role in fouling communities of Peter the Great Bay, Sea of Japan. Biologiya Morya. **29**: 50-58.

<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Zullo, V. A. 1963. A Preliminary Report On Systematics And Distribution Of Barnacles (Cirripedia) Of Cape Cod Region. Systematics-Ecology Program, Marine Biology Laboratory, Woods Hole, Massachusetts, 33 p.

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